Religious text

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Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. Religious texts are usually thought of as sacred or authoritative based on their recognition and use in a religious community. What is included as a religious text may vary between different cultures and historical contexts.[1] They often feature a compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments and laws, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and admonitions for fostering a religious community.

Within each religion, these texts are revered as authoritative sources of guidance, wisdom, and divine revelation. They are often regarded as sacred or holy, representing the core teachings and principles that their followers strive to uphold.[2][3][4] Most of the time they are considered sacred not just because of their content, but because communities treat them as important sources for belief, practice, and moral guidance. What is considered "sacred" can differ very much depending on cultural, historical, and institutional factors.[1][5]

Oral traditions

Not all religious traditions rely on written texts. In many cultures, religious teachings are preserved and passed on through oral traditions such as storytelling, memorization, and ritual speech. These oral traditions can function in ways similar to written scripture by conveying beliefs, values, and practices across generations. For example, many indigenous traditions, such as those of Native American groups, maintain religious knowledge through oral practice instead of written documents.[6]

Etymology and nomenclature

According to Peter Beal, the term scripture – derived from Script error: No such module "Lang". (Latin) – meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, and was then "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible".[7] Beyond Christianity, according to the Oxford World Encyclopedia, the term scripture has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion",[8] while The Oxford center of Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to a text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon".[9] In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the English language, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "sacred" to denote religious texts.

Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.[10] The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "Script error: No such module "Lang".", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow.[11] The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group.[12] The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the Synod of Laodicea, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts.[13]

History of religious texts

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". One of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of ancient Sumer,[14][15] a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE.[16] The Epic of Gilgamesh from Sumer, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE,[17] and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various mythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine.[18] The Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age.[19][20]

The earliest dating of the earliest Biblical texts is the 13th-12th centuries BCE.[21][22][23] The beginning of the scribal documentation from temple and royal courts is dated to the 8th century BCE and continues until the 5th century BCE.[24]

High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440,[25] before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.

Authority of religious texts

The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification, enforcement, and its use across generations. The process in which texts become accepted as sacred is often formed by historical developments, as well as religious leaders, institutions, and community practices, and may reflect broader social and cultural influences.[5] Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical, or post-canonical.[10]

"Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative",[26][27] revered and "holy writ",[28] "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community.[29][30] The terms sacred text and religious text are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be sacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the Abrahamic religions that the text is divinely or supernaturally revealed or divinely inspired, or in non-theistic religions such as some Indian religions they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternal Dharma. In contrast to sacred texts, many religious texts are narratives or discussions about the specific religion's general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures.

In some religions (e.g. Christianity), the canonical texts include a particular text (Bible) but are "an unsettled question," according to linguist Eugene Nida. In others (Hinduism, Buddhism), there "has never been a definitive canon".[31][32] While the term scripture is derived from the Latin scriptura, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their oral tradition, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to Encyclopaedia Britannica.[28][33][34]

In Islam, the Sunnah are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The Sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations.[35] According to classical Islamic theories,[36] the Sunnah are documented by hadith (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals attributed to Muhammad), and alongside the Quran (the book of Islam) is the divine revelation (wahy) delivered through Muhammad[36] that make up the primary sources of Islamic law and theology.[37][38] However, sects of Islam differ on which hadiths (if any) should be accepted as canonical (see criticism of hadith). These examples primarily reflect written traditions; however, in some religions, religious teachings may also be preserved through oral practice rather than fixed written texts.[1][6]

See also

References

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  1. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade (2012). Encyclopedia of Global Religion. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781412997898. ISBN 978-0-7619-2729-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  2. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies". Journal of Literacy Research. 35 (1): 667–670., Quote: "religious texts serve two important regulatory functions: on the group level, they regulate liturgical ritual and systems of law; at the individual level, they (seek to) regulate ethical conduct and direct spiritual aspirations."
  3. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Eugene Nida (1994). "The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts". TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction. 7 (1). Érudit: Script error: No such module "Lang".: 195–197., Quote: "The phrase "religious texts" may be understood in two quite different senses: (1) texts that discuss historical or present-day religious beliefs and practices of a believing community and (2) texts that are crucial in giving rise to a believing community."
  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ricoeur, Paul (1974). "Philosophy and Religious Language". The Journal of Religion. 54 (1). University of Chicago Press: 71–85. doi:10.1086/486374. S2CID 144691132.
  5. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1 July 1994). What Is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-2015-9.
  6. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Graham, William Albert (26 March 1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8.
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Peter Beal (2008). A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology: 1450 to 2000. Oxford University Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0-19-926544-2.
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Scriptures". The World Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-954609-1.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.John Bowker (2000). "Scripture". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7.
  10. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lee Martin McDonald; James H. Charlesworth (5 April 2012). 'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. A&C Black. pp. 1–5, 18–19, 24–25, 32–34. ISBN 978-0-567-12419-7.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Juan Carlos Ossandón Widow (2018). The Origins of the Canon of the Hebrew Bible. Brill Academic. pp. 22–27. ISBN 978-90-04-38161-2.
  12. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Gerbern Oegema (2012). Lee Martin McDonald and James H. Charlesworth (ed.). 'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. A&C Black. pp. 18–23 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-567-12419-7.
  13. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Gallagher, Edmon L.; Meade, John D. (2017). The Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity: Texts and Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. xii–xiii. ISBN 978-0-19-879249-9.
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kramer, Samuel (1942). "The Oldest Literary Catalogue: A Sumerian List of Literary Compositions Compiled about 2000 B.C.". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 88 (88): 10–19. doi:10.2307/1355474. JSTOR 1355474. S2CID 163898367.
  15. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sanders, Seth (2002). "Old Light on Moses' Shining Face". Vetus Testamentum. 52 (3): 400–406. doi:10.1163/156853302760197520.
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Enheduanna; Meador, Betty De Shong (1 August 2009). Princess, priestess, poet: the Sumerian temple hymns of Enheduanna. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71932-3.
  17. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Stephanie Dalley (2000). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–45. ISBN 978-0-19-953836-2.
  18. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.George, Andrew (31 December 2002). The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044919-8.
  19. ^ Sagarika Dutt (2006). India in a Globalized World. Manchester University Press. p. 36. Template:ISBN
  20. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kumar, Shailendra; Choudhury, Sanghamitra (1 January 2021). Meissner, Richard (ed.). "Ancient Vedic Literature and Human Rights: Resonances and Dissonances". Cogent Social Sciences. 7 (1) 1858562. doi:10.1080/23311886.2020.1858562. ISSN 2331-1886.
  21. ^ Coogan, Michael David (2012). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. (New York: Oxford University Press), p 183, https://archive.org/details/briefintroductio0000coog/page/182/mode/2up?view=theater
  22. ^ Niditch, Susan (2008). Judges. (Louisville: John Knox Press), p. 9.
  23. ^ Schniedewind, William M. (2004). How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel. (Cambridge University Press), p 54.
  24. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."The Yahwist". Contradictions in the Bible. 23 December 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
  25. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."The History Guide". www.historyguide.org. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
  26. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies". Journal of Literacy Research. 35 (1): 669–670.
  27. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.John Goldingay (2004). Models for Scripture. Clements Publishing Group. pp. 183–190. ISBN 978-1-894667-41-8.
  28. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009). Scripture. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  29. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1994). What is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach. Fortress Press. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-1-4514-2015-9.
  30. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8.
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  32. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Thomas B. Coburn (1984). ""Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 52 (3). Oxford University Press: 435–459. doi:10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435. JSTOR 1464202.
  33. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. ix, 5–9. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8.
  34. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Carroll Stuhlmueller (1958). "The Influence of Oral Tradition Upon Exegesis and the Senses of Scripture". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 20 (3): 299–302. JSTOR 43710550.
  35. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Qazi, M. A.; El-Dabbas, Mohammed Saʿid (1979). A Concise Dictionary of Islamic Terms. Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publications. p. 65.
  36. ^ a b Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought, 1996: p.7
  37. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abou El Fadl, Khaled (22 March 2011). "What is Shari'a?". ABC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  38. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."What is the Difference Between Quran and Sunnah?". Ask a Question to Us. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

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