English-based creole languages
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Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Redirect-distinguish". Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Sidebar/configuration' not found. An English-based creole language (often shortened to English creole) is a creole language for which English was the lexifier, meaning that at the time of its formation the vocabulary of English served as the basis for the majority of the creole's lexicon.[1] Most English creoles were formed in British colonies, following the great expansion of British naval military power and trade in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. The main categories of English-based creoles are Atlantic (the Americas and Africa) and Pacific (Asia and Oceania).
Over 76.5 million people globally are estimated to speak an English-based creole. Sierra Leone, Malaysia, Nigeria, Ghana, Jamaica, and Singapore have the largest concentrations of Creole speakers.
Origin
It is disputed to what extent the various English-based creoles of the world share a common origin. The monogenesis hypothesis[2][3] posits that a single language, commonly called proto–Pidgin English, spoken along the West African coast in the early sixteenth century, was ancestral to most or all of the Atlantic creoles (the English creoles of both West Africa and the Americas).
Table of creole languages
| Name | Country | Number of speakers[4] | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
Atlantic | |||
Western Caribbean | |||
| Bahamian Creole | File:Flag of the Bahamas.svg Bahamas | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2018) | |
| Turks and Caicos Creole English | File:Flag of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg Turks and Caicos | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2019) | |
| Bay Islands English | File:Flag of Honduras (1949–2022, 2026–present).svg Honduras | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2001) | |
| Jamaican Patois | File:Flag of Jamaica.svg Jamaica | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2001) | |
| Belizean Creole | File:Flag of Belize.svg Belize | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2014) | |
| Miskito Coast Creole | File:Flag of Nicaragua.svg Nicaragua | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2009) | Dialect: Rama Cay Creole |
| Limonese Creole | File:Flag of Costa Rica.svg Costa Rica | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2013) | Dialect of Jamaican Patois |
| Bocas del Toro Creole | File:Flag of Panama.svg Panama | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2000) | Dialect of Jamaican Patois |
| San Andrés–Providencia Creole | File:Flag of Colombia.svg Colombia | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (1981) | Dialect of Jamaican Patois |
Eastern Caribbean | |||
| Virgin Islands Creole | File:Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg US Virgin Islands
File:Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg British Virgin Islands File:Flag of Sint Maarten.svg Sint Maarten File:Flag of Puerto Rico.svg Puerto Rico[10] File:Flag of France.svg Saint-Martin |
Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2019) | |
| Anguillan Creole | File:Flag of Anguilla.svg Anguilla | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2001) | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| Barbudan Creole | File:Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg Antigua and Barbuda | 1,400 (2011) | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| North Antiguan Creole | File:Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg Antigua and Barbuda | 48,000 (2011) | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| South Antiguan Creole | File:Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg Antigua and Barbuda | 6,800 (2011) | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| Saint Kitts Creole | File:Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg Saint Kitts and Nevis | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2015) | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| Montserrat Creole | File:Flag of Montserrat.svg Montserrat | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2020) | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| Kokoy | File:Flag of Dominica.svg Dominica | unknown, growing[11] | Dialect of Antiguan and Barbudan Creole |
| Vincentian Creole | File:Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2016) | |
| Grenadian Creole | File:Flag of Grenada.svg Grenada | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2020) | |
| Tobagonian Creole | File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Trinidad and Tobago | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2011) | |
| Trinidadian Creole | File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Trinidad and Tobago | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2011) | |
| Bajan Dialect | File:Flag of Barbados.svg Barbados | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2018) | |
| Guyanese Creole | File:Flag of Guyana.svg Guyana | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2021) | |
| Sranan Tongo | File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2016–2018) | Including 150,000 L2 users |
| Saramaccan | File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2018) | |
| Ndyuka | File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2018) | Dialects: Aluku, Paramaccan |
| Kwinti | File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2018) | |
Southern-Caribbean | |||
| Venezuelan English Creole | File:Flag of Venezuela.svg Venezuela | unknown, likely endangered (2018) | |
| San Nicolaas English | File:Flag of Aruba.svg Aruba | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (estimation) (2020) | Spoken in San Nicolaas, Aruba |
North America | |||
| Gullah | File:Flag of the United States.svg United States | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2023) | Ethnic population: 250,000 |
| Afro-Seminole Creole | File:Flag of the United States.svg United States | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (1990)[12][13][a] | Dialect of the Gullah language |
West Africa | |||
| Krio | File:Flag of Sierra Leone.svg Sierra Leone | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2019) | Including 7,420,000 L2 speakers |
| Kreyol | File:Flag of Liberia.svg Liberia | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2015) | Including 5,000,000 L2 speakers |
| Ghanaian Pidgin | File:Flag of Ghana.svg Ghana | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2026)[15] | Including 5,000,000 L2 speakers |
| Nigerian Pidgin | File:Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". | Including 116,000,000 L2 users |
| Cameroonian Pidgin | File:Flag of Cameroon.svg Cameroon | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2017) | |
| Equatorial Guinean Pidgin | File:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg Equatorial Guinea | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2020) | Including 185,000 L2 users (2020) |
Pacific | |||
| Hawaiian Pidgin[b] | File:Flag of Hawaii.svg Hawaii | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2015) | Including 400,000 L2 users[21] |
| Ngatikese Creole | File:Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg Micronesia | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (1983) | |
| Tok Pisin | File:Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg Papua New Guinea | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". | Including 4,000,000 L2 users (2001) |
| Pijin | File:Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg Solomon Islands | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2012–2019) | 530,000 L2 users (1999) |
| Bislama | File:Flag of Vanuatu.svg Vanuatu | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2011) | |
| Pitcairn-Norfolk | File:Flag of the Pitcairn Islands.svg Pitcairn | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". | Almost no L2 users. Has been classified as an Atlantic Creole based on internal structure.[22] |
| Australian Kriol | File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australia | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". | Including 10,000 L2 users (1991) |
| Torres Strait Creole | File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australia | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting". (2016) | |
| Bonin English | File:Flag of Japan.svg Japan | Possibly Script error: No such module "Number table sorting".–2000 (2004)[citation needed] | |
| Singlish | File:Flag of Singapore.svg Singapore | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting".[citation needed] | |
| Manglish | File:Flag of Malaysia.svg Malaysia | Script error: No such module "Number table sorting".[citation needed] | |
Marginal
- Bonin English, sometimes considered a mixed language
- Iyaric ("Rastafarian")
- Jamaican Maroon Spirit Possession Language
Other
Not strictly creoles, but sometimes called thus:
See also
Notes
Page Template:Reflist/styles.css has no content.
- ^ According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Black Seminoles have also been known as Seminole Maroons or Seminole Freedmen and were a group of free blacks and runaway slaves who joined with a group of Native Americans in Florida after the Spanish abolished slavery there in 1793.[14]
- ^ Although Hawaii is part of the United States, Hawaiian Pidgin is mostly considered as a Pacific creole language rather than Atlantic, this is further mentioned in John Holm's "An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles". Therefore, it does not have to follow its political boundaries on being a U.S. state.[16]
References
Page Template:Reflist/styles.css has no content.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Velupillai, Viveka (2015). Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 519. ISBN 978-90-272-5272-2.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hancock, I. F. (1969). "A provisional comparison of the English-based Atlantic creoles". African Language Review. 8: 7–72.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Gilman, Charles (1978). "A Comparison of Jamaican Creole and Cameroon Pidgin English". English Studies. 59: 57–65. doi:10.1080/00138387808597871.
- ^ Template:E25
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Virgin Islands English Creole". Ethnologue. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ Villanueva Feliciano, Orville Omar. 2009. A Contrastive analysis of English Influences on the Lexicon of Puerto Rican Spanish in Puerto Rico and St. Croix
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Virgin Islands Creole English". Find a Bible. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Staff Consortium. "What Does the USVI and Puerto Rico Have in Common? A Summary of a Stimulating Discussion on Self-Determination in the Virgin Islands". The Virgin Islands Consortium. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sprawe, Gilbert A. "About Man Betta Man, Fission and Fusion, and Creole, Calypso and Cultural Survival in the Virgin Islands" (PDF). Retrieved 6 April 2023.
- ^ [5][6][7][8][9]
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Dominica fights to save Creole forged by slaves in Caribbean". AP News. 2021-07-02. Retrieved 2025-07-13.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Afro-Seminole Creole". Ethnologue. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
- ^ "Creoles in Texas – 'The Afro-Seminoles'." Kreol Magazine. March 28, 2014. Accessed April 11, 2018.
- ^ Kuiper, Kathleen. "Black Seminoles." In: Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed April 13, 2018.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Ethnologue (2026) - Ghanaian Pidgin English".
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holm, John A. (2000). An introduction to pidgin and creoles. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780521584609.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sasaoka, Kyle (2019). "Toward a writing system for Hawai'i Creole". ScholarSpace.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Velupillai, Viveka (2013). Hawai'i Creole. pp. 252–261. ISBN 978-0-19-969140-1.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Hawai'i Pidgin". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-06-25.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Velupillai, Viveka (2013), "Hawai'i Creole structure dataset", Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online, Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, retrieved 2021-08-20
- ^ [17][18][19][20]
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Avram, Andrei (2003). "Pitkern and Norfolk revisited". English Today. 19 (1): 44–49. doi:10.1017/S0266078403003092. S2CID 144835575.
Further reading
- Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holm, John A., ed. (1983). Central American English. Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag. ISBN 3-87276-295-8.
- Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holm, John A. (1989). "English-based varieties". Pidgins and Creoles. Vol. 2, Reference Survey. Cambridge University Press. pp. 405–551. ISBN 978-0-521-35940-5.
- Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holm, John A. (2000). An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58581-1.
- Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Schreier, Daniel; Trudgill, Peter; Schneider, Edgar W.; Williams, Jeffrey P., eds. (2010). The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48741-2.
- Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995). Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-272-5236-X.
External links
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