Khmu language

Khmu
Native to	Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, China
Ethnicity	Khmu
Native speakers	(798,400 cited 1990–2015 census)
Language family	Austroasiatic Khmuic Khmu
Writing system	Lao, Latin, Thai
Language codes
ISO 639-3	Either: kjg – Khmu khf – Buddhist Khmu (Kmhmu' Khwen)
Glottolog	khmu1255
ELP	Template:Endangered Languages Project
Linguasphere	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
	Template:Infobox language/lingualist
Approximate location of Khmu dialects in Laos

Khmu is the language of the Khmu people of the northern Laos region. It is also spoken in adjacent areas of Vietnam, Thailand and China. Khmu lends its name to the Khmuic branch of the Austroasiatic language family, the latter of which also includes Khmer and Vietnamese. Within Austroasiatic, Khmu is often cited as being most closely related to the Palaungic and Khasic languages. The name "Khmu" can also be seen romanized as Kmhmu, Khmu', Kammu, or Khamuk in various publications or alternatively referred to by the name of a local dialect.

Dialects

Khmu has several dialects but no standard variety. Dialects differ primarily in consonant inventory, existence of register, and the degree to which the language has been influenced by the surrounding national language(s). Dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible; however communication can be difficult between speakers of geographically distant dialects.

The dialects of Khmu can be broadly categorized into two groups, Western Khmu and Eastern Khmu.

• Western Khmu dialects have fewer consonant phonemes and instead use phonemic register contrast, as seen in other Austroasiatic languages, of "lax" breathy register and "tense" modal register. In at least one dialect of Western Khmu, known as Khmu Rook, tonogenesis is evident as the register contrast has developed into a system of two phonetic tones with six phonemic realizations.
• Eastern Khmu dialects show the opposite tendency. Completely lacking either register or tone distinction, these dialects utilize a three-way distinction of stops (voiced, voiceless and aspirated voiceless) and nasals (voiced, voiceless, and pre-glottalized) in the syllable-initial position for phonemic contrast.

Suwilai Premsrirat (2002)

Suwilai Premsrirat (2002) reports the following locations and dialects of Kmhmu' in Laos, Vietnam, China, and Thailand.

• Laos: spoken in the 8 northern provinces of Luang Namtha, Udomsai, Bokeo, Sayaburi, Phongsali, Luang Prabang, and Xiaq kvaaq, with a few villages near Vientiane. Dialects include Kmhmu' Rook, Khmu Lw, and Kmhmu' Cwaq (also known as Kmhmu' Uu).
• Vietnam: Kim Hua, Sop Pot, Sop Caw and Pung Kamong Villages, Kim Da Subdistrict, Tương Dương District, Vinh City, Nghệ An Province. Also in Lai Châu Province, Sơn La Province, and Thanh Hóa Province.
• China: Pung Soa village (more conservative with voicing contrasts in the initial consonants) and Om Kae village (has tonal contrasts) in Sipsongpanna, Yunnan
• Thailand: many villages, including the representative datapoint of Huai Ian village, Lai Ngao subdistrict, Wiang Kaen district, Chiang Rai province (originally from Pak Bang district of Laos, where the language is called Khmu Khrong, meaning 'Mekong Khmu'). Also in Nan province and Lampang province.

Phonology

Consonants

The consonant inventory of Khmu' is shown in the table below. The phoneme /f/, present in dialects of both Eastern and Western Khmu', is a result of borrowings from the surrounding Tai languages.

ConsonantsTemplate:Rp

		Labial		Alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Glottal
Plosive	Aspirated	pʰ		tʰ		cʰ		kʰ
	Voiceless	p		t		c		k		ʔ
	Voiced	b		d		ɟ1		ɡ1
Nasal	Voiceless1	m̥		n̥		ɲ̥		ŋ̊
	Voiced	m		n		ɲ		ŋ
	Preglottalized1	ˀm		ˀn		ˀɲ		ˀŋ
Fricative		(f)		s						h
Approximant	Voiceless1	w̥2		l̥	r̥	j̊
	Voiced	w		l	r	j
	Preglottalized1	ˀw				ˀj

1. Only found in Eastern Khmu dialects.
2. is a voiceless labio-velar approximant.

Vowels

The vowels of the Khmu' language show little variation across the dialects with all varieties having 19 monophthongs and three diphthongs (, and ).

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i	iː	ɨ	ɨː	u	uː
Close-mid	e	eː	ə	əː	o	oː
Open-mid	ɛ	ɛː		ʌː	ɔ	ɔː
Open			a	aː

Grammar

Pronouns

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st	(òɂ)	(àɂ)	(ìɂ)
2nd	(jɛ̀ɂ) (masculine), (pàː) (feminine)	(swáː)	(pɔ̀ː)
3rd	(kəː) (masculine), (nàː) (feminine)	(snáː)	(nɔ̀ː)

Syntax

Khmu uses mainly an SVO word order although an OVS order is also possible.

Vocabulary

Numeral

Cardinal
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Ordinal
	1st	2nd	3rd	4th	5th	6th	7th	8th	9th	10th

Comparison with Khmer

English	Khmu	Khmer
dog	()	()
child	()	()
mother	()	()
flower	()	()
mountain	()	()
to see	()	()
enemy	()	()
to disappear	()	()
to shoot	()	()
seven	()	()
penis	()	()

See also

• Khmuic languages
• Khmu people

References

• Thomas Khammeung Manokoune (Tamong)

Further reading

• Premsirat, Suwilai (1991). "Aspects Inter-Clausal Relations in Khmu". In Davidson, Jeremy H. C. S.; Shorto, H. L. (eds.). Austroasiatic Languages: Essays in Honour of H.L. Shorto. University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies. pp. 123–140. ISBN 0728601834. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
• Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. Template:ISBN
• Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. Khmu, a Minority Language of Thailand. Papers in South-East Asian linguistics, no. 10. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1987. Template:ISBN
• Proschan, Frank. Kmhmu' Language and Language Policy: At Home and Abroad. s.l: s.n, 1995.
• Proschan, Frank. Poetic Parallelism in Kmhmu Verbal Arts: From Texts to Performances. s.l: s.n, 1988.
• Smalley, William Allen. Outline of Khmu structure. American Oriental series. Essay, v.2. New Haven, Conn: American Oriental Society, 1961.
• Svantesson, Jan-Olof. Kammu Phonology and Morphology. Travaux de l'Institut de linguistique de Lund, 18. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1983. Template:ISBN

External links

• http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
• http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view Khmu in RWAAI Digital Archive
• Database of audio recordings in Khmu – basic Catholic prayers