Kafir

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Template:Usul al-fiqhKāfir (Template:Langx; Template:Plural form)[note 1] is an Islamic term of Arabic origin used by Muslims to refer to non-Muslims who deny the God in Islam, reject his authority, and do not accept the message of Islam as truth.[1][2][3][4][5]

Kafir is often translated as 'infidel', 'truth denier',[6][7] 'rejector',[8] 'disbeliever',[3] 'unbeliever',[2][3][9] The term is used in different ways in the Quran, with the most fundamental sense being ungrateful towards God.[10][11] Kufr means 'disbelief', 'unbelief', 'non-belief',[2] 'to be thankless', 'to be faithless', or 'ingratitude'.[11] The opposite term of kufr ('disbelief') is iman ('faith'),[12] and the opposite of kafir ('disbeliever') is mu'min ('believer').[13] A person who denies the existence of a creator might be called a dahri.[14][15]

One type of kafir is a mushrik (Script error: No such module "Lang".), another group of religious wrongdoer mentioned frequently in the Quran and other Islamic works. Several concepts of vice are seen to revolve around the concept of kufr in the Quran.[12] Historically, while Islamic scholars agreed that a mushrik was a kafir, they sometimes disagreed on the propriety of applying the term to Muslims who committed a grave sin or the People of the Book.[10][11] The Quran distinguishes between mushrikūn and People of the Book, reserving the former term for idol worshippers, although some classical commentators considered the Christian doctrine to be a form of shirk.[16]

In modern times, kafir is sometimes applied to self-professed Muslims,[17][18][19] particularly by members of Islamist movements.[20] The act of declaring another self-professed Muslim a kafir is known as takfir,[21] a practice that has been condemned but also employed in theological and political polemics over the centuries.[22]

A dhimmi or mu'ahid is a historical term[23] for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection.[24][23][25]Template:Rp Dhimmis were exempt from certain duties specifically assigned to Muslims if they paid the jizya poll tax, but otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation according to some scholars,[26][27][28] whereas others state religious minorities subjected to the status of dhimmis (such as Hindus, Christians, Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians) were inferior to the status of Muslims in Islamic states.[24] Jews and Christians were required to pay the jizya and kharaj taxes,[24] while others, depending on the different rulings of the schools of Islamic jurisprudence, might be required to convert to Islam, pay the jizya, exiled, or subject to the death penalty.[24][29][30][31][32]

In 2019, Nahdlatul Ulama, the world's largest independent Islamic organization, issued a proclamation urging Muslims to refrain from using the word kafir to refer to non-Muslims because the term is both offensive and perceived as "theologically violent".[33][34]

Etymology

The word Script error: No such module "lang". is the active participle of the verb Template:Langx, from root Script error: No such module "Lang". K-F-R.[11] As a pre-Islamic term it described farmers burying seeds in the ground. One of its applications in the Quran has also the same meaning as farmer.[35] Since farmers cover the seeds with soil while planting, the word Script error: No such module "lang". implies a person who hides or covers.[11] Ideologically, it implies a person who hides or covers the truth. Arabic poets personify the darkness of night as Script error: No such module "lang"., perhaps as a survival of pre-Islamic Arabian religious or mythological usage.[36]

The noun for 'disbelief', 'blasphemy', 'impiety' rather than the person who disbelieves, is Script error: No such module "lang"..[11][37][38][note 2]

In the Quran

The distinction between those who believe in Islam and those who do not is made in the Quran. Script error: No such module "lang"., and its plural Script error: No such module "lang"., is used directly 134 times in Quran, its verbal noun Script error: No such module "lang". is used 37 times, and the verbal cognates of Script error: No such module "lang". are used about 250 times.[39]

By extension of the basic meaning of the root, 'to cover', the term is used in the Quran in the senses of ignore/fail to acknowledge and to spurn/be ungrateful.[3] The meaning of 'disbelief', which has come to be regarded as primary, retains all of these connotations in the Quranic usage.[3] In the Quranic discourse, the term typifies all things that are unacceptable and offensive to God.[10] Within the Quranic context, the term implies an active offense and often bears the connotation of "ungratefulness".[40] In Surah 26:19, the Pharaoh accuses Moses of being a kafir for being ungrateful to what he has done to him when Moses was a child.[41] Likewise, Iblis (Satan) does not deny the existence of God, but is called a Script error: No such module "lang". for rejecting God.[42] According to Al-Damiri (1341–1405) it is neither denying God, nor the act of disobedience alone, but Iblis' attitude (claiming that God's command is unjust), which makes him a Script error: No such module "lang"..[43] The most fundamental sense of Script error: No such module "lang". in the Quran is 'ingratitude', the willful refusal to acknowledge or appreciate the benefits that God bestows on humankind, including clear signs and revealed scriptures.[10]

According to E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 4, the term first applied in the Quran to unbelieving Meccans, who endeavoured "to refute and revile the Prophet". A waiting attitude towards the Script error: No such module "lang". was recommended at first for Muslims; later, Muslims were ordered to keep apart from unbelievers and defend themselves against their attacks and even take the offensive.[22] Most passages in the Quran referring to unbelievers in general talk about their fate on the day of judgement and destination in hell.[22]

According to scholar Marilyn Waldman, as the Quran "progresses" (as the reader goes from the verses revealed first to later ones), the meaning behind the term Script error: No such module "lang". does not change but "progresses", i.e. "accumulates meaning over time". As the Islamic prophet Muhammad's views of his opponents change, his use of Script error: No such module "lang". "undergoes a development". Script error: No such module "lang". moves from being one description of Muhammad's opponents to the primary one. Later in the Quran, Script error: No such module "lang". becomes more and more connected with Script error: No such module "lang".. Finally, towards the end of the Quran, Script error: No such module "lang". begins to also signify the group of people to be fought by the Script error: No such module "lang". ('believers').[44]

Khaled Abou El Fadl argues that Quran 2:62 supports religious pluralism, implying that some non-Muslims are not kafirs: "Those who believe, Jews, Christians, Sabians—whoever believes in God and the Last Day and do good, will have their reward with their Lord and they will not fear, nor grieve." Template:Qref[45]

Types of unbelievers

People of the Book

Charles Adams writes that the Quran reproaches the People of the Book with Script error: No such module "lang". for rejecting Muhammad's message when they should have been the first to accept it as possessors of earlier revelations, and singles out Christians for disregarding the evidence of God's unity.[10] The Quranic verse Template:Qref ("Certainly they disbelieve [Script error: No such module "lang".] who say: God is the third of three"), among other verses, has been traditionally understood in Islam as rejection of the Christian doctrine on the Trinity,[46] though modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations.[note 3] Other Quranic verses strongly deny the deity of Jesus Christ, son of Mary, and reproach the people who treat Jesus as equal with God as disbelievers who will have strayed from the path of God which would result in the entrance of hellfire.[47][48] While the Quran does not recognize the attribute of Jesus as the Son of God or God himself, it respects Jesus as a prophet and messenger of God sent to children of Israel.[49] Some Muslim thinkers such as Mohamed Talbi have viewed the most extreme Quranic presentations of the dogmas of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus (Template:Qref, Template:Qref, Template:Qref) as non-Christian formulas that were rejected by the Church.[50]

On the other hand, modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations of verse Q.Template:Qref.[citation needed] Cyril Glasse criticizes the use of Script error: No such module "lang". (plural of Script error: No such module "lang".) to describe Christians as "loose usage".[4] According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, Script error: No such module "lang". are "usually regarded more leniently than other Script error: No such module "lang". [plural of Script error: No such module "lang".]" and "in theory" a Muslim commits a punishable offense if they say to a Jew or a Christian: "Thou unbeliever".[11] Charles Adams and A. Kevin Reinhart also write that "later thinkers" in Islam distinguished between ahl al-kitab and the polytheists/mushrikīn.[12]

Historically, People of the Book permanently residing under Islamic rule were entitled to a special status known as Script error: No such module "lang"., while those visiting Muslim lands received a different status known as Script error: No such module "lang"..[11]

The Mushrikun

The mushrikun are those who believe in shirk 'association', which refers to accepting other gods and divinities alongside God.[16] The term is often translated as polytheist.[16] The Quran distinguishes between mushrikun and People of the Book, reserving the former term for idol worshipers, although some classical commentators considered Christian doctrine to be a form of shirk.[16] Shirk is held to be the worst form of disbelief and it is identified in the Quran as the only sin that God will not pardon (Template:Qref, Template:Qref).[16]

The concept of mushrikūn (Template:Langx) refers to those who commit shirk (Template:Langx), or 'association,' the theological sin of accepting other gods, divinities, or partners alongside God (Allah). This term is often translated as polytheist or idolater and is a fundamental distinction in Islamic jurisprudence from the People of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb, i.e., Jews and Christians), who follow a divinely revealed scripture.[51] In classical and traditional Islamic scholarship, this category typically includes those who are not considered People of the Book. For instance, Hindus (despite it being monotheist yet pluralistic metamorphic), are generally viewed as mushrikūn because their worship involves polytheism and image-veneration, which are considered forms of shirk in Islam, a view historically reflected in the Mughal context.[52] Similarly, Buddhism, particularly its iconographic forms involving the veneration of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, has often been categorized by Muslim authors as idolatrous and grouped with the practices of the mushrikūn.[53] Other non-Abrahamic traditions, such as Sikhism (despite its monotheism, a categorization sometimes used by hardline scholars due to its rejection of Islamic prophecy), Taoism, Confucianism, Shintoism, and various indigenous religions (due to their focus on ancestor spirits, nature worship, or multiple deities), have historically been relegated to the category of mushrikūn because they fall outside the recognized group of Ahl al-Kitāb in traditional Islamic legal schools.[54]

Accusations of Script error: No such module "lang". have been common in religious polemics within Islam.[16] Thus, in the early Islamic debates on free will and theodicy, Sunni theologians charged their Mutazila adversaries with Script error: No such module "lang"., accusing them of attributing to man creative powers comparable to those of God in both originating and executing actions.[16] Mu'tazila theologians, in turn, charged the Sunnis with shirk because under their doctrine a voluntary human act results from an "association" between God, who creates the act, and the individual who appropriates it by carrying it out.[16]

In classical jurisprudence, Islamic religious tolerance applied only to the People of the Book, while mushrikun, based on the Sword Verse, faced a choice between conversion to Islam and fight to the death,[55] which may be substituted by enslavement.[56] In practice, the designation of People of the Book and the dhimmī status was extended even to non-monotheistic religions of conquered peoples, such as Hinduism.[55] Following destruction of major Hindu temples during the Muslim conquests in South Asia, Hindus and Muslims on the subcontinent came to share a number of popular religious practices and beliefs, such as veneration of Sufi saints and worship at Sufi dargahs, although Hindus may worship at Hindu shrines also.[57]

In the 18th century, followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, known as Wahhabis, believed kufr or shirk was found in the Muslim community itself, especially in "the practice of popular religion":

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[S]hirk took many forms: the attribution to prophets, saints, astrologers, and soothsayers of knowledge of the unseen world, which only God possesses and can grant; the attribution of power to any being except God, including the power of intercession; reverence given in any way to any created thing, even to the tomb of the Prophet; such superstitious customs as belief in omens and in auspicious and inauspicious days; and swearing by the names of the Prophet, ʿAlī, the Shīʿī imams, or the saints. Thus the Wahhābīs acted even to destroy the cemetery where many of the Prophet's most notable companions were buried, on the grounds that it was a center of idolatry.[12]

While ibn Abd al-Wahhab and the Wahhābīs were "the best-known premodern" revivalist and "sectarian movement" of that era, other revivalists included Shah Ismail Dehlvi and Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, leaders of the Mujāhidīn movement on the North-West frontier of India in the early 19th century.[12]

Sinners

Whether a Muslim could commit a sin great enough to become a Script error: No such module "lang". was disputed by jurists in the early centuries of Islam. The most tolerant view (that of the Script error: No such module "lang".) was that even those who had committed a major sin (Script error: No such module "lang".) were still believers and "their fate was left to God".[22] The most strict view (that of Kharidji Ibadis, descended from the Kharijites) was that every Muslim who dies having not repented of their sins was considered a Script error: No such module "lang".. In between these two positions, the Script error: No such module "lang". believed that there was a status between believer and unbeliever called "rejected" or Script error: No such module "lang"..[22]

Script error: No such module "lang".

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".

The Kharijites' view that the self-proclaimed Muslim who had sinned and "failed to repent had ipso facto excluded himself from the community, and was hence a Script error: No such module "lang"." (a practice known as Script error: No such module "lang".)[58] was considered so extreme by the Sunni majority that they in turn declared the Kharijites to be Script error: No such module "lang".,[59] following the hadith that declared, "If a Muslim charges a fellow Muslim with Script error: No such module "lang"., he is himself a Script error: No such module "lang". if the accusation should prove untrue".[22]

Nevertheless, in Islamic theological polemics Script error: No such module "lang". was "a frequent term for the Muslim protagonist" holding the opposite view, according to Brill's Islamic Encyclopedia.[22]

Present-day Muslims who make interpretations that differ from what others believe are declared Script error: No such module "lang".; Script error: No such module "lang". (edicts by Islamic religious leaders) are issued ordering Muslims to kill them, and some such people have been killed also.[60]

Script error: No such module "lang".

Another group that are "distinguished from the mass of Script error: No such module "lang"."[22] are the Script error: No such module "lang"., or apostate ex-Muslims, who are considered renegades and traitors.[22] Their traditional punishment is death, even, according to some scholars, if they recant their abandonment of Islam.[61]

Script error: No such module "lang". / Script error: No such module "lang".

Script error: No such module "lang". are non-Muslims living under the protection of an Islamic state.[62][63] Script error: No such module "lang". are exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax (Script error: No such module "lang".) but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation according to some scholars,[26][27][28] whereas others state that religious minorities subjected to the status of Script error: No such module "lang". (such as Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians) were inferior to the status of Muslims in Islamic states.[24] Jews and Christians were required to pay the Script error: No such module "lang". while pagans, depending on the different rulings of the four Script error: No such module "lang"., might be required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed under the Islamic death penalty.[24][29][30][31][32] Some historians believe that forced conversion was rare in Islamic history, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion.[32]

Upon payment of the tax (Script error: No such module "lang".), the Script error: No such module "lang". would receive a receipt of payment, either in the form of a piece of paper or parchment or as a seal humiliatingly placed upon their neck, and was thereafter compelled to carry this receipt wherever they went within the realms of Islam. Failure to produce an up-to-date Script error: No such module "lang". receipt on the request of a Muslim could result in death or forced conversion to Islam of the Script error: No such module "lang". in question.[64][failed verification]

Types of disbelief

Various types of unbelief recognized by legal scholars include:

  • Script error: No such module "lang". (verbally expressed unbelief)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (unbelief expressed through action)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (unbelief of convictions)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (major unbelief)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (minor unbelief)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (general charge of unbelief used, e.g., against the Ahmadiyya community)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (charge of unbelief against a particular individual)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (charge of unbelief against "rank and file Muslims" following, e.g., Template:Tlit)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (category covering general statements such as "whoever says X or does Y is guilty of unbelief")[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (original unbelief of non-Muslims, like those born to non-Muslim families)[65]
  • Script error: No such module "lang". (acquired unbelief of formerly observant Muslims; i.e., apostates)[65]

Iman

Muslim belief/doctrine is often summarized in "the Six Articles of Faith",[66] the first five of which are mentioned together in the Template:Qref.

  1. God[67]
  2. His angels[67]
  3. His Messengers[67]
  4. His Revealed Books,[67]
  5. The Day of Resurrection[67]
  6. Script error: No such module "lang". (Divine Preordainments; i.e. whatever God has ordained must come to pass)[67]

According to the Salafi scholar Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali, "Script error: No such module "lang". is basically disbelief in any of the articles of faith." He also lists several different types of major disbelief (disbelief so severe it excludes those who practice it completely from the fold of Islam):

  1. Script error: No such module "lang".: disbelief in divine truth or the denial of any of the articles of faith (Quran 39:32)[67]
  2. Script error: No such module "lang".: refusing to submit to God's commandments after conviction of their truth (Quran 2:34)[67]
  3. Script error: No such module "lang".: doubting or lacking conviction in the six articles of faith (Quran 18:35–38)[67]
  4. Script error: No such module "lang".: turning away from the truth knowingly or deviating from the obvious signs which God has revealed (Quran 46:3)[67]
  5. Script error: No such module "lang".: hypocritical disbelief (Quran 63:2–3)[67]

Minor disbelief, or Script error: No such module "lang"., indicates "ungratefulness of God's Blessings or Favours".[67] According to another source, a paraphrase of the Script error: No such module "lang". by Ibn Kathir,[6][unreliable source?] there are eight kinds of Script error: No such module "lang". (major unbelief); some are the same as those described by Al-Hilali (e.g., Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang".), and some are different.

  1. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief out of stubbornness. This applies to someone who knows the Truth and admits to knowing it with their tongue, but refuses to accept it and refrains from making a declaration.[68]
  2. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief out of denial. This applies to someone who denies with both heart and tongue.[69]
  3. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief out of rejection. This applies to someone who acknowledges the truth in their heart, but rejects it with their tongue. This type of Script error: No such module "lang". applies to those who call themselves Muslims but who reject any necessary and accepted norms of Islam such as Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang"..[70]
  4. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief out of hypocrisy. This applies to someone who pretends to be a believer but conceals their disbelief. Such a person is called a Script error: No such module "lang". (hypocrite).[71]
  5. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief out of detesting any of God's commands.[72]
  6. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief due to mockery and derision.[73]
  7. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief due to avoidance. This applies to those who turn away and avoid the truth.[74]
  8. Script error: No such module "lang".: Disbelief because of trying to substitute God's laws with human-made laws.[75][76]

Ignorance

In Islam, Script error: No such module "lang". ('ignorance') refers to pre-Islamic Arabia.

History of the usage of the term

Usage in the earliest sense

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When the Islamic empire expanded, the word Script error: No such module "lang". was broadly used as a descriptive term for all pagans and anyone else who disbelieved in Islam.[77][78] Historically, the attitude toward unbelievers in Islam was determined more by socio-political conditions than by religious doctrine.[22] A tolerance toward unbelievers "impossible to imagine in contemporary Christianity" prevailed even to the time of the Crusades, particularly with respect to the People of the Book.[22] However, due to animosity towards Franks, the term Script error: No such module "lang". developed into a term of abuse. During the Mahdist War, the Mahdist State used the term Script error: No such module "lang". against Ottoman Turks,[22] and the Turks themselves used the term Script error: No such module "lang". towards Persians during the Ottoman-Safavid wars.[22] In modern Muslim popular imagination, the Script error: No such module "lang". (Antichrist-like figure) will have k-f-r written on his forehead.[22]

However, there was extensive religious violence in India between Muslims and non-Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire (before the political decline of Islam).[79][80][81] In their memoirs on Muslim invasions, enslavement and plunder of this period, many Muslim historians in South Asia used the term Script error: No such module "lang". for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains.[77][78][82][83] Raziuddin Aquil states that "non-Muslims were often condemned as Script error: No such module "lang"., in medieval Indian Islamic literature, including court chronicles, Sufi texts and literary compositions" and Script error: No such module "lang". were issued that justified persecution of the non-Muslims.[84]

Relations between Jews and Muslims in the Arab world and use of the word Script error: No such module "lang". were equally as complex, and over the last century, issues regarding Script error: No such module "lang". have arisen over the conflict in Israel and Palestine.[85] Calling the Jews of Israel, "the usurping Script error: No such module "lang".", Yasser Arafat turned on the Muslim resistance and "allegedly set a precedent for preventing Muslims from mobilizing against 'aggressor disbelievers' in other Muslim lands, and enabled 'the cowardly, alien Script error: No such module "lang".' to achieve new levels of intervention in Muslim affairs."[85]

In 2019, Nahdlatul Ulama, the largest independent Islamic organization in the world, issued a proclamation urging Muslims to refrain from using the word Script error: No such module "lang". to refer to non-Muslims, as the term is both offensive and perceived to be "theologically violent".[33][86]

Muhammad's parents

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

According to Islamic sources, none of forefathers of Muhammad were Script error: No such module "lang"..[87][88] According to Ibn Hajar, the Quran clearly declares that Ahl al-Fatrah were among the Muslims.[89] Ibn Hajar is of opinion that none of the Muhammad's parents who were non-prophets were Script error: No such module "lang". (disbelievers) and all the hadiths on this subject (although some hadiths[which?] seem to contradict it) mean that.[89] Ibn Hajar says about Muhammad saying his Script error: No such module "lang". is in the Hell, that the Script error: No such module "lang". in the hadith refers to the paternal uncle and that Arabs widely use Script error: No such module "lang". to refer to Script error: No such module "lang". (paternal uncle).[90] Most Sunni scholars hold the view that the parents of Muhammad are saved and inhabitants of Heaven.[91]

Shia Muslim scholars likewise consider Muhammad's parents to be in Paradise.[92][93] In contrast, the Salafi[94] website IslamQA.info, founded by the Saudi Arabian Salafi scholar Muhammad Al-Munajjid, argues that Islamic tradition teaches that Muhammad's parents were Script error: No such module "lang". ('disbelievers') who are in Hell.[95]

Other uses

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

File:011 Kafirs of Natal.jpg
The Script error: No such module "lang". of Natal and the Zulu Country by Rev. Joseph Shooter

By the 15th century, Muslims in Africa were using the word Script error: No such module "lang". in reference to the non-Muslim African natives. Many of those Script error: No such module "lang". were enslaved and sold to European and Asian merchants by their Muslim captors, most of the merchants were from Portugal, which had established trading outposts along the coast of West Africa by that time. These European traders adopted the Arabic word and its derivatives.[96]

Some of the earliest records of European usage of the word can be found in The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589) by Richard Hakluyt.[97] In volume 4, Hakluyt writes: "calling them Cafars and Gawars, which is, infidels or disbelievers".[98] Volume 9 refers to the slaves (slaves called Cafari) and inhabitants of Ethiopia ("and they use to go in small shippes, and trade with the Cafars") by two different but similar names. The word is also used in reference to the coast of Africa as "land of Cafraria".[99] The 16th century explorer Leo Africanus described the Cafri as "negroes", and he also stated that they constituted one of five principal population groups in Africa. He identified their geographical heartland as being located in a remote region of southern Africa, an area which he designated as Cafraria.[100]

By the late 19th century, the word was in use in English-language newspapers and books.[101][102][103][104][105] One of the Union-Castle Line ships operating off the South African coast was named SS Script error: No such module "lang"..[106] In the early 20th century, in his book The Essential Script error: No such module "lang"., Dudley Kidd writes that the word Script error: No such module "lang". had come to be used for all dark-skinned South African tribes. Thus, in many parts of South Africa, Script error: No such module "lang". became synonymous with the word "native".[107] Currently in South Africa, however, the word kaffir is regarded as a racial slur, applied pejoratively or offensively to blacks.[108]

The song "Kafir" by the American technical death metal band Nile on its sixth album Those Whom the Gods Detest uses the violent attitudes that Muslim extremists have towards Script error: No such module "lang". as subject matter.[109][unreliable source?]

The Nuristani people were formerly known as the Kaffirs of Kafiristan before the Afghan Islamization of the region.

The Kalash people who live in the Hindu Kush mountain range which is located south west of Chitral are referred to as Script error: No such module "lang". by the Muslim population of Chitral.[110]

In modern Spanish, the word Script error: No such module "Lang"., derived from the Arabic word Script error: No such module "lang". by way of the Portuguese language, also means 'uncouth' or 'savage'.[111]

See also

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References

Notes

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  1. ^ Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "lang"., or Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "lang".; feminine: Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "lang".; feminine plural: Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "lang". or Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "lang".
  2. ^ Oxford Islamic Studies Online states a better definition of Script error: No such module "lang". is 'to be thankless,' 'to be faithless.'[12]
  3. ^ That this verse criticizes a deviant form of Trinitarian belief which overstressed distinctiveness of the three persons at the expense of their unity. Modern scholars have also interpreted it as a reference to Jesus, who was often called "the third of three" in Syriac literature and as an intentional over-simplification of Christian doctrine intended to highlight its weakness from a strictly monotheistic perspective.[46]

Citations

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  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Rabbani, Faraz (6 June 2016). "Are All Non-Muslims Deemed "Kafir"?". Seekers Guidance. Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  2. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Schirrmacher, Christine (2020). "Chapter 7: Leaving Islam". In Enstedt, Daniel; Larsson, Göran; Mantsinen, Teemu T. (eds.). Handbook of Leaving Religion. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 18. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 81–95. doi:10.1163/9789004331471_008. ISBN 978-90-04-33092-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
  3. ^ a b c d e Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Adang, Camilla (2001). "Belief and Unbelief: choice or destiny?". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. I. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00025. ISBN 978-90-04-14743-0.
  4. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Glasse, Cyril (1989). The New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised 2001 ed.). New York: Altamira Press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0759101890.
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sevinç, Kenan; Coleman, Thomas J.; Hood, Ralph W. (25 July 2018). "Non-Belief: An Islamic Perspective". Secularism and Nonreligion. 7 5. doi:10.5334/snr.111.
  6. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Adapted from Ibn Kathir. "Types of Kufr (Disbelief)". SunnaOnline.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
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  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Akhtar, Shabbir (1990). A Faith for All Seasons: Islam and Western Modernity. Bellew. ISBN 9780947792411.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Willis, John Ralph, ed. (2018) [1979]. "Glossary". Studies in West African Islamic History, Volume 1: The Cultivators of Islam (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 197. ISBN 9781138238534. Kufr: Unbelief; non-Muslim belief (Kāfir = a non-Muslim, one who has received no Dispensation or Book; Kuffār plural of Kāfir).
  10. ^ a b c d e Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Charles Adams; A. Kevin Reinhart (2009). "Kufr". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305135.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Björkman, W. (2012) [1978]. "Kāfir". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch.; Schacht, J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 4. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3775. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Adams, Charles; Reinhart, A. Kevin. "Kufr". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
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  17. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Rajan, Julie (30 January 2015). Al Qaeda's Global Crisis: The Islamic State, Takfir and the Genocide of Muslims. Routledge. p. cii. ISBN 9781317645382. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
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  20. ^ Emmanuel M. Ekwo Racism and Terrorism: Aftermath of 9/11 Author House 2010 Template:ISBN page 143
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  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Houtsma, M. Th., ed. (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Vol. 4. Brill. p. 619. ISBN 978-9004097902. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
  23. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Juan Eduardo Campo, ed. (12 May 2010). "dhimmi". Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. pp. 194–195. dhimmis are non-Muslims who live within Islamdom and have a regulated and protected status. [...] In the modern period, this term has generally has occasionally been resuscitated, but it is generally obsolete.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Stillman, Norman A. (1998) [1979]. "Under the New Order". The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. pp. 22–28. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7.
  25. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi (26 March 2016). The Laws of Islam (PDF). Enlight Press. ISBN 978-0994240989. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
  26. ^ a b H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 219.
  27. ^ a b The French scholar Gustave Le Bon (author of La civilisation des Arabes) writes "that despite the fact that the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim, the non-Muslim was free to enjoy equally well with every Muslim all the privileges afforded to the citizens of the state. The only privilege that was reserved for the Muslims was the seat of the caliphate, and this, because of certain religious functions attached to it, which could not naturally be discharged by a non-Muslim." Mun'im Sirry (2014), Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions, p.179. Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
  28. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2007). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. HarperOne. p. 204. ISBN 978-0061189036. According to the dhimma status system, non-Muslims must pay a poll tax in return for Muslim protection and the privilege of living in Muslim territory. Per this system, non-Muslims are exempt from military service, but they are excluded from occupying high positions that involve dealing with high state interests, like being the president or prime minister of the country. In Islamic history, non-Muslims did occupy high positions, especially in matters that related to fiscal policies or tax collection.
  29. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Michael Bonner (2008). Jihad in Islamic History. Princeton University Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-1400827381. To begin with, there was no forced conversion, no choice between "Islam and the Sword". Islamic law, following a clear Quranic principle (2:256), prohibited any such things [...] although there have been instances of forced conversion in Islamic history, these have been exceptional.
  30. ^ a b Waines (2003). "An Introduction to Islam". Cambridge University Press. p. 53
  31. ^ a b Winter, T. J., & Williams, J. A. (2002). Understanding Islam and the Muslims: The Muslim Family Islam and World Peace. Louisville, Kentucky: Fons Vitae. p. 82. Template:ISBN. Quote: The laws of Muslim warfare forbid any forced conversions, and regard them as invalid if they occur.
  32. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lapidus, Ira M. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. p. 345.
  33. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Winn, Patrick (8 March 2019). "The world's largest Islamic group wants Muslims to stop saying 'infidel'". The World, Public Radio International. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
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  35. ^ (أَعْجَبَ الْكُفَّارَ نَبَاتُهُ) Surah 57 Al-Hadid (Iron) Ayah 20
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  39. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. pp. 420–22. ISBN 9781438126968.
  40. ^ Hawting, Gerald R. The idea of idolatry and the emergence of Islam: From polemic to history. Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 49
  41. ^ Hawting, Gerald R. The idea of idolatry and the emergence of Islam: From polemic to history. Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 49
  42. ^ Juan Cole University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Juan Cole University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
  43. ^ Sharpe, Elizabeth Marie into the realm of smokeless fire: (Qur'an 55:14): A critical translation of al-Damiri's article on the jinn from "Hayat al-Hayawan al-Kubra 1953 The University of Arizona download date: 15 March 2020
  44. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Waldman, Marilyn (July–September 1968). "The Development of the Concept of Kufr in the Qur'an". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (3): 442–55. doi:10.2307/596869. JSTOR 596869.
  45. ^ El Fadl, Khaled Abou (2005), The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam From The Extremists, Harper San Francisco, p.216-217
  46. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Thomas, David (2006). "Trinity". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Brill.
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  51. ^ Smith, Jane I. "Shirk." The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press, 2009.
  52. ^ Waines, David. An Introduction to Islam (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 110. (Discusses the view of Hindus as mushrikūn in India.)
  53. ^ Yusuf, Imtiyaz. "Islam and Buddhism." The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity. Oxford University Press, 22 Jan. 2014, p. 112. (Discusses the historical Islamic perception of Buddhism as idolatrous.)
  54. ^ Esposito, John L. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 288. (States that religions such as Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, and indigenous religions are historically relegated to the category of mushrikūn for being outside the Ahl al-Kitāb category; also addresses the categorization of non-Prophetic Abrahamic traditions and other non-monotheistic faiths generally.)
  55. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hallaq, Wael B. (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations (Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 327.
  56. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lewis, Bernard (1995). The Middle East, A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years. Touchstone. p. 230. ISBN 978-0684832807.
  57. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies (Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 391, 396. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.
  58. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Izutsu, Toshihiko (2006) [1965]. "The Infidel (Kāfir): The Khārijites and the origin of the problem". The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām. Tokyo: Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at Keio University. pp. 1–20. ISBN 983-9154-70-2.
  59. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ruthven, Malise (April 2002). "The Eleventh of September and the Sudanese mahdiya in the Context of Ibn Khaldun's Theory of Islamic History". International Affairs. 78 (2): 344–45. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.00254.
  60. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."'You will get your head chopped off' – Scots Muslim writer threatened by extremists". The Herald. 3 June 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  61. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lewis, Bernard (1995). The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years. Touchstone. p. 230. ISBN 978-0684832807. Tolerance may in no circumstances be extended to the apostate, the renegade Muslim, whose punishment is death. Some authorities allow the remission of this punishment if the apostate recants. Others insist on the death penalty even then. God may pardon him the world to come; the law must punish him in this world.
  62. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bearman, P. J.; Banquis, Th.; Bowworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs Bowworth, W. P., eds. (1 May 2009). "Glossary and Index of Terms: muʿāhad". Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). pp. 137–592. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei2glos_SIM_gi_03145. ISBN 9789004144484. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
  63. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bearman, P. J.; Banquis, Th.; Bowworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs Bowworth, W. P., eds. (1 May 2009). "Muʿāhid". Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). pp. 137–592. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_3909. ISBN 9789004161214. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
  64. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ye'or, B (2011). The decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam. Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 79.
  65. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Adang, Camilla; Ansari, Hassan; Fierro, Maribel (2015). Accusations of Unbelief in Islam: A Diachronic Perspective on Takfīr. Brill. p. 11. ISBN 9789004307834. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  66. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Six Articles of the Islamic Faith". Religion Facts. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
  67. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilali, Muhammad; Khan, Muhammad Muhsin (2000). The Holy Quran Translation. ideas4islam. pp. 901–02. ISBN 9781591440000. Retrieved 16 June 2015.[permanent dead link]
  68. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (2001). "verse 50:24". The Qur'an. Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
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  74. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (2001). "verse 18:57". The Qur'an. Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.
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  77. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Engineer, Ashghar Ali (13–19 February 1999). "Hindu-Muslim Problem: An Approach". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (7): 396–400. JSTOR 4407649.
  78. ^ a b Elliot and Dowson, Tarikh-i Mubarak-Shahi, The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 4, Trubner London, p. 273
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  80. ^ Holt et al., The Cambridge History of Islam – The Indian sub-continent, south-east Asia, Africa and the Muslim west, Template:ISBN
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  83. ^ Elliot and Dowson, Tarikh-i Mubarak-Shahi, The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 4, Trubner London, pp. 68–69
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  88. ^ Jalaludheen Suyuti. Masalikul Hunafa. p. 33.
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  90. ^ Al-Haytami, Ibn Hajar. Al-Minah al-Makkiyyah. p. 153.
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  92. ^ alhassanain. The Nasibis Kufr Fatwa – that the Prophet (s)'sparents were Kaafir (God forbid) Script error: No such module "webarchive".
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  95. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Al-Munajjid, Muhammad (16 February 2004). "Are the parents of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) in Paradise or in Hell?". IslamQA. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
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  102. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Kafir Band in Jail and Mighty Glad, Too". The New York Times. 18 October 1905. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
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  107. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kidd, Dudley (1925). The Essential Kafir. New York: The MacMillan Company. pp. v.
  108. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Theal, Georg McCall (1970). Kaffir (Xhosa) Folk-Lore: A Selection from the Traditional Tales Current among the People Living on the Eastern Border of the Cape Colony with Copious Explanatory Notes. Westport, CT: Negro Universities.
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  110. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Welker, Glenn. "Kalash Kafirs of Chitral". Indigenous Peoples' Literature. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
  111. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."cafre". Collins Spanish Dictionary.

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