Soap

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Liquid soap)

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses".

File:Handmade soap cropped and simplified.jpg
A handmade soap bar
File:Sodium stearate v2.svg
Two equivalent images of the chemical structure of sodium stearate, a typical ingredient found in bar soaps
File:Action of soap on oil.ogv
Emulsifying action of soap on oil

Soap is a salt of a fatty acid (sometimes other carboxylic acids) used for cleaning and lubricating products as well as other applications.[1] In a domestic setting, soaps, specifically "toilet soaps", are surfactants usually used for washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping. In industrial settings, soaps are used as thickeners, components of some lubricants, emulsifiers, and catalysts.

Soaps are often produced by mixing fats and oils with a base.[2] Humans have used soap for millennia; evidence exists for the production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around 2800 BC.[3]

Types

File:Decorative Soaps.jpg
A collection of decorative bar soaps, as often found in hotels

Toilet soaps

File:Micelle.svg
Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the aggregation of soap subunits (such as sodium stearate): The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the interior is lipophilic (attracted to oils).

In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. Toilet soaps are salts of fatty acids with the general formula (RCO2−)M+, where M is Na (sodium) or K (potassium).[4]

When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat "dirt" become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water, making them soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water. In hand washing, as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills microorganisms by disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins.[5][6][7] It also emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.[8]

When used in hard water, soap does not lather well but forms soap scum (related to metallic soaps, see below).[9]

Non-toilet soaps

So-called metallic soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners.[4] A commercially important example is lithium stearate. Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil, which would produce calcium soaps.[10] Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier.[11] Metal soaps can be prepared by neutralizing fatty acids with metal oxides:

2 RCO2H + CaO → (RCO2)2Ca + H2O

A cation from an organic base such as ammonium can be used instead of a metal; ammonium nonanoate is an ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide.[12]

Another class of non-toilet soaps are resin soaps, which are produced in the paper industry by the action of tree rosin with alkaline reagents used to separate cellulose from raw wood. A major component of such soaps is the sodium salt of abietic acid. Resin soaps are used as emulsifiers.[13]

Soapmaking

Template:Main article

The production of toilet soaps usually entails saponification of triglycerides, which are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin is sometimes left in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes separated.[14][15] The glycerine makes the soap softer. The addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap.

Additives

Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation.

To make antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added. There is some concern that use of antibacterial soaps and other products might encourage antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms.[16]

The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide (soda lye), are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide (potash lye), are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard and are used almost exclusively in greases.[citation needed]

For making toilet soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as tallow.[17] Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and glycerin. Tallow, rendered fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Hence, the fat compound in many soaps is known as sodium tallowate. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil, sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils with a high percentage of olive oil.

Most soaps for body washing are "refatted" or "superfatted". Superfatting agents can achieve multiple goals. First, superfatting ensures the absence of lye in the soap. For cake soaps, superfatting confers plasticity, which prevents cracking.[18] Finally, superfats replenish (refat) the skin oils that are washed away during the cleansing process. Typical superfatting agents are lecithins, lanolin, and various alkanolamides.[4] Handmade soap can be refatted using fat or coconut oil beyond that needed to consume the alkali used (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat, although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter.[19]

Fatty acid content of various fats used for soapmaking
Fats Lauric acid Myristic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid Oleic acid Linoleic acid Linolenic acid
C12 saturated C14 saturated C16 saturated C18 saturated C18 monounsaturated C18 diunsaturated C18 triunsaturated
Tallow 0 4 28 23 35 2 1
Coconut oil 48 18 9 3 7 2 0
Palm kernel oil 46 16 8 3 12 2 0
Palm oil 0 1 44 4 37 9 0
Laurel oil 54 0 0 0 15 17 0
Olive oil 0 0 11 2 78 10 0
Canola oil 0 1 3 2 58 9 23

History

Ancient world

File:MODOAmigo.jpg
Twentieth century packaging of Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap, part of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection

Proto-soaps, which mixed fat and alkali and were used for cleansing, are mentioned in Sumerian, Babylonian and Egyptian texts.[20][21]

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.[22] A formula for making a soap-like substance was written on a Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC. This was produced by heating a mixture of oil and wood ash, the earliest recorded chemical reaction, and used for washing woolen clothing.[23]

The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians used a soap-like product as a medicine and created this by combining animal fats or vegetable oils with a soda ash substance called trona.[23] Egyptian documents mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.[citation needed]

In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for a soap-like substance consisted of uhulu (ashes), cypress [oil], and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".[24]

True soaps, which we might recognise as soaps today, were different to proto-soaps. They foamed, were made deliberately, and could be produced in a hard or soft form because of an understanding of lye sources.[21] It is uncertain who invented true soap, which may have been independently invented by various societies.[20][25][26]

Knowledge of how to produce true soap emerged at some point between early mentions of proto-soaps and the first century AD.[20][21] Alkali was used to clean textiles such as wool for thousands of years[27] but soap forms only when there is enough fat, and experiments show that washing wool does not create visible quantities of soap.[20] Experiments by Sally Pointer show that the repeated laundering of materials used in perfume-making lead to noticeable amounts of soap forming. This fits with other evidence from Mesopotamian culture.[20]

The ancient Romans did not use soap till at least the first century CE.[28] At that time, the Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any dirt with a strigil,[29] whose standard design was a curved blade with a handle, all made of metal.[30] Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle first-century life, describes soap as "an invention of the Gauls".[31] The word Script error: No such module "Lang"., Latin for soap, has connected to a mythical Mount Sapo, a hill near the River Tiber where animals were sacrificed.[32] But in all likelihood, the word was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin Script error: No such module "Lang"., "tallow". It first appears in Pliny the Elder's account, Historia Naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes.[33] There he mentions its use in the treatment of scrofulous sores, as well as among the Gauls as a dye to redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women.[34][35] The Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC.[36] Aretaeus of Cappadocia, writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called soap".[37]

The 2nd-century AD physician Galen describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking.[38]

In the Southern Levant, the ashes from barilla plants, such as species of Salsola, saltwort (Seidlitzia rosmarinus) and Anabasis, were used to make potash, which was cooked with oil into soap.[39][40] Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal fat throughout the Levant and was boiled in a copper cauldron for several days.[41] As the boiling progressed, alkali ashes and smaller quantities of quicklime were added and constantly stirred.[41] In the case of fat, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such as yarrow leaves, lavender, and germander.

Ancient China

A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis.[42] Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas and plant ash called zhuyizi (Template:Zh). Soap made of animal fat did not appear in China until the modern era.[43] Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments and creams.[42]

Islamic Golden Age

Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in West Asia and North Africa during the Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing glycerine from olive oil. In West Asia, soap was produced from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkali. In Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.[44]

A 12th-century document describes the process of soap production.[45] It mentions the key ingredient, alkali, which later became crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-qaly or "ashes".

By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in West Asia and North Africa had become a major cottage industry, with sources in Nablus, Fes, Damascus, and Aleppo.[citation needed]

Medieval Europe

Soapmakers in Naples (then under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire) were members of a guild in the late sixth century,[46] and in the eighth century, soap-making was well known in Italy and Spain.[47] The Carolingian capitulary De Villis, dating to around 800, representing the royal will of Charlemagne, mentions soap as being one of the products the stewards of royal estates are to tally. The lands of Medieval Spain were a leading soapmaker by 800, and soapmaking began in the Kingdom of England about 1200.[48] Soapmaking is mentioned both as "women's work" and as the produce of "good workmen" alongside other necessities, such as the produce of carpenters, blacksmiths, and bakers.[49]

In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from animal fats and had an unpleasant smell. This changed when olive oil began to be used in soap formulas instead, after which much of Europe's soap production moved to the Mediterranean olive-growing regions.[50] Hard toilet soap was introduced to Europe by Arabs and gradually spread as a luxury item. It was often perfumed.[44][50]

By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in Christendom often took place on an industrial scale, with sources in Antwerp, Castile, Marseille, Naples and Venice.[47]

16th–17th century

In France, by the second half of the 16th century, the semi-industrialized professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of Provence—Toulon, Hyères, and Marseille—which supplied the rest of France.[51] In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers.[52]

English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.[53] The demand for high-quality hard soap was significant enough during the Tudor period that barrels of ashes were imported for the manufacture of soap.[21]

Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 17th century, using vegetable oils (such as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted the newly formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from 'foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite and quality, besides common Laundresses and others', testifying that 'the New White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap'.[54]

During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a soap tax was introduced in England, which meant that until the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury, used regularly only by the well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely supervised by revenue officials who made sure that soapmakers' equipment was kept under lock and key when not being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be produced by small makers because of a law that stipulated that soap boilers must manufacture a minimum quantity of one imperial ton at each boiling, which placed the process beyond the reach of the average person. The soap trade was boosted and deregulated when the tax was repealed in 1853.[55][56][57]

Modern period

Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century, as advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness and health.[58] In modern times, the use of soap has become commonplace in industrialized nations due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing pathogenic microorganisms.[59]

File:Langtry cartoon.png
Caricature of Lillie Langtry, from Punch, Christmas 1890: The soap box on which she sits reflects her endorsements of cosmetics and soaps.

Until the Industrial Revolution, soapmaking was conducted on a small scale and the product was rough. In 1780, James Keir established a chemical works at Tipton, for the manufacture of alkali from the sulfates of potash and soda, to which he afterwards added a soap manufactory. The method of extraction proceeded on a discovery of Keir's. In 1790, Nicolas Leblanc discovered how to make alkali from common salt.[36] Andrew Pears started making a high-quality, transparent soap, Pears soap, in 1807 in London.[60] His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt, became the brand manager (the first of its kind) for Pears in 1865.[61] In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster-girl for Pears soap, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.[62][63]

William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle. American manufacturer Benjamin T. Babbitt introduced marketing innovations that included the sale of bar soap and distribution of product samples. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever. These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns.

Liquid soap

Liquid soap was invented in the nineteenth century; in 1865, William Sheppard patented a liquid version of soap.[64] In 1898, B.J. Johnson developed a soap derived from palm and olive oils; his company, the B.J. Johnson Soap Company, introduced "Palmolive" brand soap that same year.[65] This new brand of soap became popular rapidly, and to such a degree that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name to Palmolive.[66]

In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as Pine-Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier.[67][68]

Liquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-machine washing methods, such as using a washboard.[69]

See also

Page Template:Div col/styles.css has no content.

References

Page Template:Reflist/styles.css has no content.

  1. ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 5th ed. (the "Gold Book") (2025). Online version: (2006–) "Soap". Script error: No such module "CS1 identifiers".
  2. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."What's The Difference Between Soap and Detergent". cleancult.com. Archived from the original on 2019-12-18. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
  3. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Willcox, Michael (2000). "Soap". In Hilda Butler (ed.). Poucher's Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps (10th ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 453. ISBN 978-0-7514-0479-1. Archived from the original on 2016-08-20. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BCE in ancient Babylon.
  4. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Klaus Schumann; Kurt Siekmann (2005). "Soaps". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_247. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Jabr, Ferris (2020-03-13). "Why soap works". medicine.yale.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-14.
  6. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Getting back to chemistry basics: How simple soap saves lives | Emory University | Atlanta GA". news.emory.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-14.
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Donavyn Coffey (2022-06-18). "How does soap kill germs?". Live Science. Retrieved 2025-10-14.
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Tumosa, Charles S. (2001-09-01). "A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint". cool.conservation-us.org. Archived from the original on 2017-03-18. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holman, John S.; Stone, Phil (2001). Chemistry. Nelson Thornes. p. 174. ISBN 9780748762392.
  10. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Thorsten Bartels; et al. (2005). "Lubricants and Lubrication". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a15_423. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.S., Tumosa, Charles (2001-09-01). "A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint". cool.conservation-us.org. Archived from the original on 2017-03-18. Retrieved 2017-03-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Ammonium nonanoate (031802) Fact Sheet" (PDF). epa.gov. 2006-09-21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-08-15.
  13. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Fiebach, Klemens; Grimm, Dieter (2000). "Resins, Natural". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_073. ISBN 3-527-30673-0.
  14. ^ Cavitch, Susan Miller. The Natural Soap Book. Storey Publishing, 1994 Template:ISBN.
  15. ^ Garzena, Patrizia, and Tadiello, Marina (2013). The Natural Soapmaking Handbook. Online information and Table of Contents Script error: No such module "webarchive".. Template:ISBN/
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Antibacterial Soaps Concern Experts". ABC News. 2006-01-06. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2014.
  17. ^ David J. Anneken, Sabine Both, Ralf Christoph, Georg Fieg, Udo Steinberner, Alfred Westfechtel "Fatty Acids" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. Script error: No such module "CS1 identifiers"..
  18. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kuntom, Ainie; Ahmad, Iftikhar; Kifli, Hamirin; Shariff, Zainon Mat (1999). "Effects of superfatting agents on cracking phenomena in toilet soap". Journal of Surfactants and Detergents. 2 (3): 325–329. doi:10.1007/s11743-999-0084-5.
  19. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."The Process of Making Soap". edtech.mcc.edu. Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
  20. ^ a b c d e Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."An Experimental Exploration of the Earliest Soapmaking". EXARC Journal (EXARC Journal Issue 2024/3). 2024-08-22. ISSN 2212-8956.
  21. ^ a b c d Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Jess Shaw (2 February 2024). "The Meaning of Cleaning". Exarc.net (Podcast). Exarc. Archived from the original on 2025-04-04. Retrieved 16 September 2024.
  22. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Willcox, Michael (2000). "Soap". In Hilda Butler (ed.). Poucher's Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps (10th ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 453. ISBN 978-0-7514-0479-1. Archived from the original on 2016-08-20. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BCE in ancient Babylon.
  23. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Veerbek, H. (2012). "1 Historical Review". In Falbe, Jürgen (ed.). Surfactants in Consumer Products. Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9783642715457 – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Noted in Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Levey, Martin (1958). "Gypsum, salt and soda in ancient Mesopotamian chemical technology". Isis. 49 (3): 336–342 (341). doi:10.1086/348678. JSTOR 226942. S2CID 143632451.
  25. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Derry, Thomas Kingston; Williams, Trevor Illtyd (1960-01-01). A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A. D. 1900. Courier Corporation. p. 265. ISBN 9780486274720. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  26. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sakkaravarthi, Vinupriya (2022). "History of Soap". CosmoDerma. 2 133. Scientific Scholar. doi:10.25259/CSDM_152_2022. Retrieved 23 March 2026.
  27. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cassidy, Cody (2020-05-05). "Who Discovered Soap? What to Know About the Origins of the Life-Saving Substance". TIME. Retrieved 2024-09-16.
  28. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sakkaravarthi, Vinupriya (2022). "History of Soap". CosmoDerma. 2 133. Scientific Scholar. doi:10.25259/CSDM_152_2022. Retrieved 23 March 2026.
  29. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.De Puma, Richard. "A Third-Century B.C.E. Etruscan Tomb Group from Bolsena in the Metropolitan Museum of Art". American Journal of Archaeology: 429–40.
  30. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Padgett, J. Michael (2002). Objects of Desire: Greek Vases from the John B. Elliot Collection. Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. pp. 36–48.
  31. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."The history of soapmaking". The history of soapmaking. Archived from the original on 2022-08-12. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
  32. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bognolo, Guido. Surface Active Agents: Historical Perspectives and Future Developments. p. 5.
  33. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Harper, Douglas. "Soap". etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 2011-02-08. Retrieved 2022-08-15.
  34. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, XXVIII.191.
  35. ^ Martial, Epigrammata, VIII, 33, 20. Script error: No such module "webarchive".
  36. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Foreman, Amanda (October 4, 2019). "The Long Road to Cleanliness". www.wsj.com. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved October 6, 2019.
  37. ^ Aretaeus, The Extant Works of Aretaeus, the Cappadocian, ed. and tr. Francis Adams (London) 1856:238 and 496 Script error: No such module "webarchive"., noted in Michael W. Dols, "Leprosy in medieval Arabic medicine" Journal of the History of Medicine 1979:316 note 9; the Gauls with whom the Cappadocian would have been familiar are those of Anatolian Galatia.
  38. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Partington, James Riddick; Hall, Bert S (1999). A History of Greek Fire and Gun Powder. JHU Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-8018-5954-0.
  39. ^ Zohar Amar, Flora of the Bible, Jerusalem 2012, s.v. ברית, p. 216 (note 34) Template:Catalog lookup link.
  40. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abu-Rabiʻa, ʻAref (2001). Bedouin Century: Education and Development among the Negev Tribes in the Twentieth Century. New York. pp. 47–48. doi:10.3167/9781571818324. ISBN 978-1-57181-832-4. OCLC 47119256. Archived from the original on 2019-07-25. Retrieved 2019-08-22.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  41. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cohen, Amnon (1989). Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 0521365511.
  42. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Jones, Geoffrey (2010). "Cleanliness and Civilization". Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-160961-9. Archived from the original on 2016-05-07.
  43. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Benn, Charles (2002). Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-19-517665-0. Archived from the original on 2016-05-05.
  44. ^ a b Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (2001), Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences, pages 73–74. Script error: No such module "webarchive"., UNESCO.
  45. ^ BBC Science and Islam Part 2, Jim Al-Khalili. BBC Productions. Accessed 30 January 2012.
  46. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kleinschmidt, Harald (2000). Understanding the Middle Ages: the transformation of ideas and attitudes in the Medieval world. Boydell & Brewer. p. footnote 48, p. 104. ISBN 0-85115-770-X.
  47. ^ www.soap-flakes.com Script error: No such module "webarchive".. soap-flakes.com. Retrieved on 2015-10-31.
  48. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Robinson, James Harvey (1904). Readings in European History: Vol. I. Ginn and co. Archived from the original on 2009-09-25.
  49. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Charles Springer, ed. (1954). A History of Technology, Volume 2. Clarendon Press. pp. 355–356. ISBN 9780198581062. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  50. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Nef, John U. (1936). "A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III". The Journal of Political Economy. 44 (5): 643–666 (660ff.). doi:10.1086/254976. JSTOR 1824135. S2CID 222453265.
  51. ^ Barthélemy, L. (1883) "La savonnerie marseillaise", noted by Nef 1936:660 note 99.
  52. ^ Nef 1936:653, 660.
  53. ^ Keith Thomas, 'Noisomeness,' London Review of Books, Vol. 42, No. 14, 16 July 2020.
  54. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."The Soap Tax". The Spectator Archive. The Spectator, London. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  55. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Repeal of the Soap Tax". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 3 April 1838. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
  56. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hansard, Thomas Curson (1864). Hansard's Parliamentary Debates. Uxbridge, England: Forgotten Books. pp. 363–374. ISBN 9780243121328. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  57. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology. Taylor & Francis. pp. 2003–205. ISBN 978-0-415-01306-2. Archived from the original on 2016-05-05.
  58. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ahveninen, Anna (2020-03-31). "Hand sanitiser or soap: making an informed choice for COVID-19". Curious. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2020-08-04.
  59. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Pears, Francis (1859). The Skin, Baths, Bathing, and Soap. The author. pp. 100–. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04.
  60. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness World Records 2014. Guinness World Records Limited. pp. 200. ISBN 9781908843159.
  61. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."When Celebrity Endorsers Go Bad". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022. British actress Lillie Langtry became the world's first celebrity endorser when her likeness appeared on packages of Pears Soap.
  62. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Richards, Jef I. (2022). A History of Advertising: The First 300,000 Years. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 286.
  63. ^ Page Template:Citation/styles.css has no content.US patent 49561, Sheppard, William, "Improved liquid soap", issued Script error: No such module "auto date formatter". 
  64. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Prigge, Matthew (2018-01-25). "The Story Behind This Bar of Palmolive Soap". Milwaukee Magazine. Archived from the original on 2018-01-25. Retrieved 2019-06-27.
  65. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Colgate-Palmolive Company History: Creating Bright Smiles for 200 Years". Colgate-Palmolive Company. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
  66. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Boyle, Hal (September 12, 1954). "There's Gold in those Pine Stumps". Sarasota Journal. p. 11. Archived from the original on 2025-12-02.
  67. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Our Heritage - Learn About Tide's History | Tide". tide.com. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-10-16.
  68. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."The History of Liquid Soap". Blue Aspen Originals. Archived from the original on 1 December 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2012.

Further reading

Script error: No such module "Sister project links".

Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Authority control/config' not found.

Retrieved from "https://cosmopedia.co/index.php?title=Soap&oldid=38501#Liquid_soap"