Sotho verbs

Notes: The orthography used in this and related articles is that of South Africa, not Lesotho. For a discussion of the differences between the two see the notes on Sesotho orthography.

Sesotho verbs are words in the language that signify the action or state of a substantive, and are brought into agreement with it using the subjectival concord. This definition excludes imperatives and infinitives, which are respectively interjectives and class 14 nouns.

In the Bantu languages, verbs often form the centre of a complex web of regular derivational patterns, and words/roots belonging to many parts of speech may be directly or indirectly derived from them. Not only may new verbs be derived using a large number of derivational suffixes, nouns (and, iteratively, the other parts of speech that derive from them), some imperative interjectives and, to a lesser extent, ideophones may be formed by simple morphological devices.

Varieties

Verb stems may be divided into four varieties:

1. Regular stems beginning with a consonant and ending in a vowel
2. Monosyllabic verbs
3. Vowel verb stems begin with a vowel
4. Derived verbs constructed from other verbs, noun roots, adjectival roots, and ideophones by suffixes.

Regular verbs are those beginning with a consonant and ending in the vowel Template:Encodefirst. The final Template:Encodefirst may change into every vowel except the near-close back vowel () through inflexion or derivation. The verb root is the atomic part of the verb, which does not change (save for some purely phonetic changes) and Bantu languages share numerous similar verb roots (with predictable sound changes between languages).

Stem Template:Encodefirst see, from root Template:Encodefirst, also existing as isiZulu -bon-, Swahili -on-, Tshivenda -vhon-, Chishona -von-, Chilamba -won- etc. Proto-Bantu *-bon-

Monosyllabic stems may be classified into several categories:

• The i-stems have a typical Template:Encodefirst in derivatives, and Template:Encodefirst in the passive

  Template:Encodefirst come ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, Causative Template:Encodefirst, Passive Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst go ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, Causative Template:Encodefirst, Passive Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst draw water ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, Causative Template:Encodefirst, Passive Template:Encodefirst

• The e-stems have a typical near-close front Template:Encodefirst in their derivatives

  Template:Encodefirst burn ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, Causative Template:Encodefirst, Passive Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst eat ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, Causative Template:Encodefirst, Passive Template:Encodefirst

• The "velar" e-stems have labialized onsets, and have similar forms to other e-stems but have a near-close back vowel Template:Encodefirst in the passive

  Template:Encodefirst drink ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, Causative Template:Encodefirst, Passive Template:Encodefirst

• There are three defective stems, ending in a vowel other than Template:Encodefirst. The first two of these verbs are very common among the Bantu languages

  Template:Encodefirst say ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst, No causative, Passive Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst be; very restricted in use (only used in the participial sub-mood of certain copulatives)

  Template:Encodefirst say so ⇒ Perfect Template:Encodefirst / Template:Encodefirst, No causative, No passive

Vowel verb stems are conjugated as regular verbs but are put into a separate class due to being uncommon in Bantu languages (and, in some languages but not in Sesotho, causing changes to concords and other formatives prefixed to them). Class 1 and 5 nouns derived from these verbs do not cause any velarization to the prefix. The Proto-Bantu reconstructions of many of these verbs suggests that they originally began with *g (or sometimes *j), which "protected" the vowel.

Template:Encodefirst avoid (as a taboo)

Template:Encodefirst travel

Template:Encodefirst hear, sense

Template:Encodefirst construct

Template:Encodefirst strike, punish

Tones

Verbs fall into only two categories when it comes to their tones: L verbs and H verbs. The difference lies in whether the "underlying tone" of the verb's first syllable is high or null (under-specified). Thus, all verbs of a certain length in the same tonal category are pronounced with similar tonal patterns under the same grammatical circumstances.

What the verbal tone system lacks in variety, however, it more than makes up for in complexity. The tones of the syllables of the verbs regularly change under varying grammatical environments, with the high tones being manipulated by "tonal rules", and the tones associated with certain syllables being changed by numerous "tonal melodies."

Verbal derivatives

Various derivatives may (recursively) be formed from verbs by means of several suffixes (called "extensions"). Each derived verb is as much an authentic verb as the original.

In the following sections, "polysyllabic" means "of more than two syllables."

Verbs are derived primarily through suffixes, some of which are no longer productive ("dead").

Verb derivations using the root Template:Encodefirst

Type	Suffix	Valency change	Example	Meaning
Simple	Template:Encodefirst	0	Template:Encodefirst	finish
Passive	Template:Encodefirst	–1	Template:Encodefirst	be finished
	Template:Encodefirst		Template:Encodefirst
Neutro-active	Template:Encodefirst	intr.	Template:Encodefirst	finishable
Neutro-passive	Template:Encodefirst	intr.	Template:Encodefirst	finishable
Applied	Template:Encodefirst	+1	Template:Encodefirst	finished for
Causative	Template:Encodefirst	+1	Template:Encodefirst	cause to finish
Intensive	Template:Encodefirst	0	Template:Encodefirst	finish intensely
Perfective	Template:Encodefirst	0	Template:Encodefirst	finish completely
Reciprocal	Template:Encodefirst	–1	Template:Encodefirst	finish each other
Associative	Template:Encodefirst	–1	Template:Encodefirst	(be finished together)
Reversive	Template:Encodefirst	0	Template:Encodefirst	unfinish
Augmentative	Template:Encodefirst	0	Template:Encodefirst	(finish extensively)
Extensive	Template:Encodefirst	0	Template:Encodefirst	(finish repeatedly and extensively)
Diminutive	(see text)	0	Template:Encodefirst	finish a little
Positional (dead)	Template:Encodefirst	0	(Template:Encodefirst)	(squat)
Stative extensive (dead)	Template:Encodefirst	0	(Template:Encodefirst)	(sleep)
Contactive (dead)	Template:Encodefirst	0	(Template:Encodefirst)	(clench the hand)

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The passive indicates that the subject is acted upon by the agent, just like the "passive voice" in English. The agent is indicated by the copulative prefix Template:Encodefirst although passives may also be used idiomatically without an agent.

The suffix may be either Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-u-) (short passive) or Template:Encodefirst (long passive).

The following rules are applied to form the passive:

• The long passive is formed simply by changing the final Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst mould ⇒ Template:Encodefirst be moulded

• Many verbs accept the short passive suffix by simply becoming labialized

  Template:Encodefirst do ⇒ Template:Encodefirst be done

• Palatalization occurs where necessary (when the final consonant is Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, or Template:Encodefirst)

  Template:Encodefirst win ⇒ Template:Encodefirst / Template:Encodefirst be won

• Velarization occurs where necessary (when the final consonant is Template:Encodefirst or Template:Encodefirst)

  Template:Encodefirst move slightly ⇒ Template:Encodefirst be moved slightly

• Monosyllabic e-stems suffix Template:Encodefirst (except the velar e-stems ending in Template:Encodefirst, which suffix Template:Encodefirst) and i-stems suffix Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst give ⇒ Template:Encodefirst be given

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst replace it with Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst select, indicate ⇒ Template:Encodefirst be selected

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst replace it with Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst judge, condemn ⇒ Template:Encodefirst be judged

It is very rare to have other verbs derived from the passive through suffixes.

This suffix has the effect of decreasing the valency of the verb and giving it an agentive import.

In the most formal standard language, the perfect of the passive is generally formed by inserting Template:Encodefirst before the final vowel of the perfect form (that is, the passive suffix has to come after the perfect suffix). In non-standard common speech, however, the perfect of the passive may alternatively be formed by using the long passive with the final vowel changed to the final vowel (usually Template:Encodefirst) of the verb's perfect. Additionally, in non-standard speech the perfect passive of verbs ending in a Template:Encodefirst that changes to Template:Encodefirst in the passive replace it with Template:Encodefirst.

The passive is used more commonly in Sesotho than the English "passive voice." Consider the following example:

Sesotho (passive) Template:Encodefirst, English (active) "Who will feed the dog?"

The alternatives are more complex in their respective languages:

Sesotho (normal) Template:Encodefirst, English (passive) "The dog will be fed by whom?"

Passive verbs are rare in the Niger–Congo family outside the Bantu sub-branch.

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The neutro-active indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by using "get" or "become." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates a current state of being done or being doable.

The suffix is Template:Encodefirst. Only transitive verbs may take this suffix.

Template:Encodefirst accomplish ⇒; Template:Encodefirst (currently) get finished, take place

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst be done

This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed.

The perfect of verbs ending with this suffix is achieved by changing the final Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst.

This extension is quite rare in the Bantu language family as a whole.

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The neutro-passive indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by the suffix "-able." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates that the verb has the potential of being doable, but not necessarily currently.

The suffix is Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-ik-, with an irregular vowel shift). Only transitive verbs may take this suffix.

Template:Encodefirst disperse ⇒; Template:Encodefirst be (potentially) spillable, become scattered

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst be doable, become done

This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed.

The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix is formed in the general way by replacing the final vowel with Template:Encodefirst.

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The applied indicates an action applied on behalf of or with regard to some object. It can be approximated in English by prepositions and prepositional phrases such as "for" and "towards."

The suffix is Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-id-, with an irregular vowel shift). Sometimes this extension is doubled to Template:Encodefirst, causing the verb to look like a perfective form but with an applied meaning.

The following rules apply when forming the applied:

• Usually one simply suffixes Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst to search for ⇒ Template:Encodefirst search on behalf of

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst replace it with Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst walk ⇒ Template:Encodefirst walk on behalf of, towards

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst preceded by an open vowel (, , or ) elide the middle and contract to Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst write ⇒ Template:Encodefirst write to/for

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst preceded by a closed vowel (, , , or ) don't contract

  Template:Encodefirst grow ⇒ Template:Encodefirst grow for/towards

• Polysyllabic verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst (most), Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, and Template:Encodefirst cause the Template:Encodefirst to alveolarize to Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst do ⇒ Template:Encodefirst do for

• Polysyllabic causative verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst replace it with Template:Encodefirst, reversing an original alveolarization

Template:Encodefirst work ⇒; Template:Encodefirst work for

The applied increases the valency of verbs; intransitive verbs may become transitive in the applied, and transitive verbs may become doubly transitive

Template:Encodefirst live ⇒; Template:Encodefirst live for

Template:Encodefirst say something ⇒; Template:Encodefirst tell someone something (two objects)

The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix changes the Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst.

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The causative indicates an action caused to happen by some agent. It can be approximated in English by using "cause to."

The suffix is Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu long causative *-îc- + short causative *-î- ⇒ *-îcî-).

The following rules apply when forming the causative. Most complications are caused by the original Proto-Bantu "short causative" *-î- being absorbed into the preceding consonant (Sesotho does not allow palatal glides):

• Usually one simply suffixes Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst do ⇒ Template:Encodefirst cause to do

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst replace it with Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst walk ⇒ Template:Encodefirst cause to walk

• Some verbs ending in a Template:Encodefirst, which is an alveolarization of an original Template:Encodefirst, revert the alveolarization, ending in Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst work ⇒ Template:Encodefirst use

• Monosyllabic e-stems suffix Template:Encodefirst and i-stems suffix Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst drink ⇒ Template:Encodefirst cause to drink

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst and disyllabic verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst contract and cause nasalization resulting in Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst see ⇒ Template:Encodefirst show

• The original Proto-Bantu short causative suffix causes some verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst and Template:Encodefirst to change to Template:Encodefirst and Template:Encodefirst respectively (in common non-standard speech all verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst are changed to Template:Encodefirst)

  Template:Encodefirst meet ⇒ Template:Encodefirst join

• Most verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst and Template:Encodefirst change the Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst. This is also due to the Proto-Bantu short causative (Proto-Bantu *-k- + short causative *-î- + final *-a ⇒ *-kîa, which appears as Sesotho Template:Encodefirst)

  Template:Encodefirst go to graze ⇒ Template:Encodefirst herd

Often the causative verb has a meaning implying "help to do"

Template:Encodefirst build ⇒; Template:Encodefirst help to build ⇒; Template:Encodefirst help each other to build ⇒; Template:Encodefirst neighbour (since traditionally neighbouring houses would share a wall and yard, which the owners would build together)

The causative may increase the valency of verbs

Template:Encodefirst know something ⇒; Template:Encodefirst cause someone to know something

Usually the perfect is formed by further suffixing Template:Encodefirst, but if the derivation alveolarized an original final Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst then the alveolarization is reversed, resulting in final Template:Encodefirst. If the suffix changed final Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst then the perfect is formed by replacing this final syllable with Template:Encodefirst.

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The intensive indicates intensity or quickness of action.

The suffix is simply a doubling of the causative suffix (Template:Encodefirst) and the first syllable therefore follows similar phonetic rules as the causative. Sometimes, the suffix Template:Encodefirst is used instead, resulting in causative and intensive verbs looking the same.

Template:Encodefirst look for ⇒; Template:Encodefirst investigate, search thoroughly

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst do intensely

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The perfective indicates an action that has been carried out to completion or perfection.

The suffix is simply a doubling of the applied suffix (Template:Encodefirst). It must therefore not be confused with the applied form of verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst.

Template:Encodefirst step on ⇒; Template:Encodefirst oppress, coerce

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst do thoroughly

A further intensification of meaning is achieved with the suffixes Template:Encodefirst (Template:Encodefirst + Proto-Bantu *-îa) and Template:Encodefirst (Template:Encodefirst + Proto-Bantu *-îa), a compounding of intensive and perfective suffixes. These verbs tend to denote meanings indicating specific purpose, and it is not unlikely that they are in fact intensifications of the applied suffix Template:Encodefirst instead (though the verb's valency is not increased).

Template:Encodefirst shout ⇒; Template:Encodefirst call out, scream

Template:Encodefirst obscure, screen ⇒; Template:Encodefirst protect

Though one might expect this suffix to form the perfect by replacing the Template:Encodefirst with Template:Encodefirst, it often appears as Template:Encodefirst instead, even in standard speech.

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The reciprocal denotes a reciprocated action.

It is formed by suffixing Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-an-).

It is usually used with plural subjects and plural concords, and has the effect of decreasing the valency. However, an object (the second subject) as well as a singular subject may still be used if the object is prefixed with the conjunctive enclitic Template:Encodefirst (and, with); that is, they have a conjunctive import

Template:Encodefirst speak ⇒; Template:Encodefirst cause to speak ⇒; Template:Encodefirst they communicate, Template:Encodefirst I communicate with him

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst do (to) each another

Often this suffix is used when there is no chance that two subjects are involved in reciprocating the action. In this case it simply converts the verb from transitive to conjunctive import, with a minor modification of meaning (the action is slightly extended in time, or indicates a habit of the actor)

Template:Encodefirst look at, search for ⇒; Template:Encodefirst / Template:Encodefirst I am looking for them (class 8 or 10 object)

The perfect is usually formed by changing the final vowel to Template:Encodefirst, though if the original verb was monosyllabic then the perfect replaces the Template:Encodefirst with Template:Encodefirst

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The associative indicates that two or more subjects are associated together in the action of the verb.

It is formed by suffixing Template:Encodefirst.

This derivative formation is not regularly used with most verbs.

Template:Encodefirst attach, hook ⇒; Template:Encodefirst be attached to each other, telecommunicate with one another

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; (Template:Encodefirst (be done together)

The perfect simply replaces the final vowel with Template:Encodefirst

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The reversive (or inversive) indicates an entire reversal of an action.

It is formed by suffixing Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-udud-) although several other dead formations exist, showing two sets of derivations into intransitive, transitive, and causative. These extensions, or at least their short forms as found in other languages (Proto-Bantu intransitive *-uk- and transitive *-ud-), are sometimes called the "separative" instead.

Dead reversive forms

Type	Intransitive	Transitive	Causative
Short	Template:Encodefirst	Template:Encodefirst	Template:Encodefirst
Full	Template:Encodefirst	Template:Encodefirst	Template:Encodefirst

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst undo

Though the theory (and standard grammar) would dictate that this suffix forms its perfect by changing to Template:Encodefirst, it often appears as Template:Encodefirst instead, even in standard speech.

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The augmentative is a largely dead formation signifying an augmentation or extension of a verb.

It is indicated by suffixes similar to the dead full formation of the reversive (Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, and Template:Encodefirst).

Template:Encodefirst set apart ⇒; Template:Encodefirst be distinct

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The extensive indicates performing the action repeatedly or extensively.

It is formed with the suffix Template:Encodefirst but is limited in scope. It is primarily used with verbs signify discrete actions, causing them to be continuous or habitual. It is also sometimes heard doubled as Template:Encodefirst, with the same meaning.

Template:Encodefirst jump ⇒; Template:Encodefirst prance about

Template:Encodefirst do ⇒; Template:Encodefirst do repeatedly

The perfect of this extension simply suffixes Template:Encodefirst.

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The diminutive indicates an action done "a little."

It is indicated by reduplication, the form being determined by the length of the verb:

• Disyllabic verbs repeat the entire stem

  Template:Encodefirst do ⇒ Template:Encodefirst do slightly

• Monosyllabic verbs are repeated with the near-close front vowel () between the stems. This form is almost never used

  Template:Encodefirst eat ⇒ Template:Encodefirst eat a little

• Polysyllabic verbs duplicate the first two syllables of the stem

  Template:Encodefirst find ⇒ Template:Encodefirst find somewhat

Note that this derivation pattern, like all other uses of reduplication in Bantu languages, is also sometimes used to indicate an intensification and/or repetition of an action—in these cases the actual meaning must be determined from context.

After the reduplication, the new verb may only have an underlying high tone on the first syllable (that is, only the phones of the first syllable are repeated, but not its tone).

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The positional is a dead stative formation found in many verbs, mostly indicating bodily positions.

It is marked by the suffix Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-am-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative positional nature of the verb.

The perfect of these verbs changes the Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.

Template:Encodefirst lie face downwards ⇒; Template:Encodefirst He is lying face down, Template:Encodefirst He did assume a lying position, Template:Encodefirst He was lying

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The stative extensive is a dead stative formation found in a few miscellaneous verbs, united by the fact that they all indicate states.

It is marked by the suffix Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-ad-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative nature of the verb.

The perfect of these verbs changes the Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.

Template:Encodefirst wonder ⇒; Template:Encodefirst They are in awe, Template:Encodefirst They did become amazed, Template:Encodefirst They were amazed

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The contactive is a dead formation found in a few verbs, all indicating touch or contact of some sort.

It is marked by the suffix Template:Encodefirst (Proto-Bantu *-at-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise or intensify the contactive nature of the verb.

The perfect of these verbs changes the Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.

Template:Encodefirst wear ⇒; Template:Encodefirst We are clothed, Template:Encodefirst We did become dressed, Template:Encodefirst We were dressed

Compounding of extensions

A verb may assume more than one extension, giving it a correspondingly more complex meaning.

Template:Encodefirst watch X ⇒; causative Template:Encodefirst cause Y to watch X ⇒; causative-applied Template:Encodefirst cause Y to watch X on behalf of Z ⇒; causative-applied-reciprocal Template:Encodefirst cause Y to watch X on behalf of each other

Though it may appear that the possibilities are endless, the truth is that the depth is limited by various factors. Apart from the obvious constraints of semantics (whether a complex meaning actually makes any sense and serves any possible purpose) and markedness (how strange and complex the verb sounds to the native speaker), there are also restrictions on the order of the extensions.

If an extension increases the valency of a verb, any objects of the original verb are demoted and the new object is made principal.

Template:Encodefirst I watch the fields ⇒; Template:Encodefirst I cause the children to watch the fields ⇒; Template:Encodefirst I cause the children to watch the fields on behalf of the old woman (highly marked)

If an objectival concord is used instead of an object, the concord agrees with what would have been the principal object. Additionally, if the original object was also only indicated by an objectival concord, then it becomes demoted to an absolute pronoun (Sesotho verbs may only have one objectival concord).

Template:Encodefirst I watch them (Template:Encodefirst fields) ⇒; Template:Encodefirst I cause them (Template:Encodefirst children) to watch them (Template:Encodefirst) ⇒; Template:Encodefirst I cause them (Template:Encodefirst) to watch them (Template:Encodefirst) on behalf of her (Template:Encodefirst grandmother, old woman) (highly marked)

(Note how the infix Template:Encodefirst disappears when the verb is followed by a direct object, even if it is not the object indicated by the concord.)

Like all other Bantu languages, Sesotho has inherited certain restrictions on the order of the extensions. The most basic rule (which is broken by very few languages) is that the passive and the short causative always follow all the other extensions (including the perfect Template:Encodefirst, which is always used with the final vowel Template:Encodefirst). Although it is probable that Proto-Bantu had fairly strict restrictions on the order of the other extensions, these rules have been relaxed somewhat in modern Bantu languages.

For example, since the causative Template:Encodefirst is normally ordered closer to the verb stem than the reciprocal Template:Encodefirst (or indeed, most other extensions), to form the causative of the reciprocal the (dead) short causative (Proto-Bantu *-î-) is usually used instead, therefore palatalizing the reciprocal to Template:Encodefirst. Various other unexpected palatalizations and alveolarizations brought on by combinations of the causative with other extensions may be similarly explained by the action of the short causative either replacing the normal causative, or being used together with the long causative around another extension (causative + other extension ⇒ Template:Encodefirst + other extension + *-î- ⇒ Template:Encodefirst + modified extension).

Certain extensions (intensive, perfective, associative, reversive, and augmentative) are obviously fossilised compound extensions. Often a derived verb may continue being used while the original verb disappears from the language.

Note that, since prefixes are of the shape CV or V (where C represents a consonant and V a vowel), verb roots end without the final vowel, prefixes are of the shape (VC)* (* indicates possible repetition) and the final vowel simply has shape V, this and other structures reinforce the open syllable structure of the Bantu languages, and very few languages have broken it.

Non-verbal derivatives

Verbs may also, to a lesser degree, be derived from nouns, qualificatives, and ideophones.

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Denominative verbs are stative verbs derived from nouns and qualificatives.

They are formed by suffixing Template:Encodefirst (dead) or Template:Encodefirst to the stem, giving a verb meaning "become...."

Template:Encodefirst intelligence ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become intelligent

Template:Encodefirst soft (relative) ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become soft

The monosyllabic adjectival roots (except Template:Encodefirst some, and Template:Encodefirst four) become nasalized before assuming the suffix. Furthermore, the vowel of Template:Encodefirst (beautiful) changes to Template:Encodefirst:

Template:Encodefirst ugly ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become ugly

Template:Encodefirst new ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become renewed

Template:Encodefirst beautiful ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become beautiful

Template:Encodefirst black ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become black

Causatives are formed regularly by changing the Template:Encodefirst suffix to Template:Encodefirst. Perfects are formed regularly by changing the Template:Encodefirst suffix to Template:Encodefirst.

This extension (the long Template:Encodefirst) is quite rare in the Bantu languages, though all languages have a few verbs in this form even if it may no longer be active.

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Deideophonic verbs are formed rather irregularly from disyllabic ideophones.

They are miscellaneous in nature and are formed by the addition of several suffixes such as Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst etc.

However, common across the Bantu language group are the forms Template:Encodefirst for the intransitive, Template:Encodefirst for the transitive, and Template:Encodefirst for the causative. Additionally, the causative of the intransitive may be formed regularly with the suffix Template:Encodefirst, but this is usually not done if the causative Template:Encodefirst form is regularly used.

Template:Encodefirst of turning over ⇒; Template:Encodefirst flip over, experience a car accident

Template:Encodefirst of being completely full ⇒; Template:Encodefirst burst open

Template:Encodefirst of picking up and throwing forward ⇒; Template:Encodefirst (of large herbivores) stand up and move in a certain direction, and Template:Encodefirst initiate a process or plan

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When forming these verbs, the tone of the first syllable of the verb (its characteristic tone) corresponds to the tone of the first syllable of the part of the original word used to form the verb (usually the root, but a complete noun for monosyllabic roots). Thus verbs derived regularly from monosyllabic stems are all L verbs (due to the null toned prefix).

Template:Encodefirst easy, easyness [ _ _ ¯ ] ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become easy (L verb)

Template:Encodefirst angry, anger [ _ ¯ _ ] ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become angry (H verb)

Template:Encodefirst strong, strength [ _ _ ] ⇒; Template:Encodefirst become strong (L verb)

Inflexion during conjugation

In addition to the verbal derivatives, the following changes may occur to the stem's suffix Template:Encodefirst, during conjugation:

• The Template:Encodefirst changes to -e () to form the perfect subjunctive tense and certain tenses of the negative conjugation. This vowel always causes the syllable carrying it to assume a high tone.
• The Template:Encodefirst changes to -e () to form the present-future tense of the subjunctive mood.
• The Template:Encodefirst becomes Template:Encodefirst to form the plural of the imperative and certain relative tenses.
• The Template:Encodefirst becomes Template:Encodefirst to form the perfect stem. Various phonological situations may change this basic construct.

The general rules for the formation of the perfect are varied due to various mostly phonological interactions with the suffix:

• Generally, Template:Encodefirst is suffixed

  Template:Encodefirst buy ⇒ Template:Encodefirst bought

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst replace it with Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst go ⇒ Template:Encodefirst went

• For monosyllabic stems, i-stems suffix Template:Encodefirst and e-stems suffix Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst drink ⇒ Template:Encodefirst drank

• Disyllabic verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst change it to Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst send ⇒ Template:Encodefirst sent

• Polysyllabic verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst, Template:Encodefirst (most), Template:Encodefirst, and Template:Encodefirst cause the Template:Encodefirst to alveolarise to Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst wash ⇒ Template:Encodefirst washed

• Verbs ending in Template:Encodefirst of more than one syllable and disyllabic reciprocal verbs change the Template:Encodefirst to Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst sing ⇒ Template:Encodefirst sang
  and so forth...

For all verbs, however, the past tense may also be indicated with the simple Template:Encodefirst (past subjunctive) multi-verbal conjugation, although its meaning does diverge somewhat from that of the perfect (especially with stative verbs)

Template:Encodefirst They did sing

Conjugation

Verbal conjugation is by far the most complex and varied topic in the Bantu languages. The tenses are conjugated by means of prefixes and infixes indicating person, mood, implication, and aspect.

There are two conjugations, the positive and negative, and most tenses have corresponding forms in each. The language recognises four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the participial sub-mood (infinitives are nouns and imperatives are interjectives). The moods may be divided into tenses according to time (remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future) and implication (simple, progressive, and exclusive), which may be further subdivided according to aspect into indefinite, continuous, and perfect.

There are also many often complex compound tenses, indicated by changes in tone and the use of deficient verbs (multi-verbal conjugations).

Import refers to how the object of the verb is indicated.

Verbs can be either:

• Intransitive, with no direct object

  Template:Encodefirst I become quiet

• Transitive, with a single direct object

  Template:Encodefirst I thank you

• Ditransitive, with two objects

  Template:Encodefirst I give my sibling food for the journey

• Locative, with a locative adverbial construction often indicated by Template:Encodefirst / Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst I enter my home

• Agentive verbs (usually passives), which need a copulative used as an agent adverb indicated by Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst They are helped by the dictionary

• Instrumental verbs, which use an instrumental adverb indicated by Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst We travel by car

• Conjunctive verbs (mostly reciprocals), which use the conjunctive proclitic Template:Encodefirst

  Template:Encodefirst We agree with them

Many verbs can have more than one import (Template:Encodefirst (walk) can be locative, instrumental, or conjunctive; Template:Encodefirst (speak) can be intransitive, transitive, instrumental, or conjunctive) and verb derivatives can also change the import of the stem.

Many shades of meaning are achieved by the employment of deficient verbs in multi-verbal conjugations. Many tenses and moods may only be formed in this manner.

The verbal complex

In the Bantu languages, the typical full structure of verbs, excluding contractions, is as follows (the * indicates possible iteration):

PI — SC — NEG — TM — AM — OC — ROOT — EXT* — FV  │    │     │    │    │    │      │     │     │  │    │     │    │    │    │      │     │   final vowel  │    │     │    │    │    │      │  extensions  │    │     │    │    │    │  vb. root  │    │     │    │    │  objectival concord  │    │     │    │  aspect marker  │    │     │  tense marker  │    │   negative  │  subjectival concord pre-initial morpheme

In Sesotho, as with most other Bantu languages, this has been modified somewhat, resulting in the following structure ("I shall no longer look on his behalf"):

Template:Encodefirst PI — SC — A1 — A2 — OC — ROOT — EXT* — FV  │    │    │    │    │      │     │     │  │    │    │    │    │      │     │   final vowel  │    │    │    │    │      │  extensions  │    │    │    │    │  vb. root  │    │    │    │  objectival concord  │    │    │  second verbal auxiliary  │    │  first verbal auxiliary  │  subjectival concord pre-initial morpheme

Though indicative tenses form their negatives with the prefix Template:Encodefirst, many other moods and tenses form their negatives with an infix (either Template:Encodefirst or Template:Encodefirst, depending on the specific tense). The verbal auxiliary infixes are used to indicate tense, certain forms of the subjunctive, progressive implication, the potential mood, as well verb focus in the present indicative tense. The verbal infixes always follow the simple infixes, though there are some instances where two simple infixes are used at the same time.

The extensions include suffixes used in verbal derivatives as well as the perfect Template:Encodefirst (which is always followed by the final vowel Template:Encodefirst).

With the exception of the verb root, each of these formatives is monosyllabic, but in Sesotho some verbal infixes (those that are contractions) and extensions (those that are obvious compoundings of earlier forms) also have more than one syllable.

Additionally, the structure (obj conc. + stem) is often called the "macrostem" in various syntactical and tonal theories.

Many aspects and tenses are indicated by multi-verbal conjugations and, with the exception of the subjectival concord, the root, and the final vowel, most of these formatives are not always necessary. Note that infinitives and imperatives (both of which do not have subjectival concords) may be considered separate parts of speech (nouns/gerunds and interjectives). Deficient verbs are never used with objectival concords, and the use of the other formatives with them is also limited.

This structure obviously ignores any possible enclitics that is suffixed.

Tenses

The Sesotho tense system is somewhat less complex (though not necessarily less complicated) than that of other Bantu languages. Whereas many Bantu languages clearly divide the time into remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future, not all Sesotho moods divide very clearly between immediate and remote tenses, and the differences in meaning are not as great.

Examples indicating the tenses (positive simple indicative mood)

Tense	Example
Present	Template:Encodefirst I know the truth
Past perfect	Template:Encodefirst I knew the truth
Immediate past	Template:Encodefirst I just recently knew the truth
Immediate future	Template:Encodefirst I shall know the truth soon
Future	Template:Encodefirst I shall know the truth

Moods

There are basically four moods.

• The indicative mood indicates what is, was, or will be. It uses the basic subjectival concord.
• The potential mood indicates that an action is possible. It uses similar concords to those of the subjunctive.
• The participial sub-mood is so-called since it has forms corresponding to the tenses of both the above moods (most of the indicative, but only the present potential). It is widely used after certain conjunctives, in forming the complements of numerous multi-verbal tenses, and in the formation of relative clauses.
• The subjunctive mood is used in subordinate or consecutive constructions, in many cases being parallel in usage to the Latin subjunctive.

Examples indicating the moods (present tense)

Mood	Positive	Negative
Indicative	Template:Encodefirst I know the truth	Template:Encodefirst I do not know the truth
Potential	Template:Encodefirst I may know the truth	Template:Encodefirst I may not know the truth
Participial	Template:Encodefirst ...while I know the truth	Template:Encodefirst ...while I do not know the truth
Subjunctive	Template:Encodefirst ...so I may know the truth	Template:Encodefirst ...so I may not know the truth

Implication

Within the indicative and participial moods, tenses may be further sub-divided according to the implication of the action.

• The simple implication indicates an action in no way qualified.
• The progressive implication indicates an ongoing action.
• The exclusive implication indicates an action that has not been happening until now.

Examples indicating implication (indicative mood)

Implication	Example
Simple	Template:Encodefirst I know the truth
Progressive	Template:Encodefirst I still know the truth
Exclusive	Template:Encodefirst I now know the truth

Aspects

The tenses may be further divided according to the aspect of the action. In Sesotho there are at least three aspects, the definite, the continuous, and the perfect.

Examples indicating aspect (with a multi-verbal indicative past tense)

Aspect	Example
Definite	Template:Encodefirst I did know
Continuous	Template:Encodefirst I knew
Perfect	Template:Encodefirst I had known

Deficient verbs

Deficient verbs, so called because they require a subordinate or complementary verb to complete their action, are used to form many tenses and to impart certain shades of meaning. They form part of multi-verbal conjugations consisting of a string of verbs, each with its own subjectival concord.

Deficient verbs, being "deficient", are never used alone. Many of them are irregular in form and have irregular inflexions. Monosyllabic deficient verbs are never used with the penultimate Template:Encodefirst that is sometimes used with normal verbs (not to be confused with the indefinite concord).

Many of these verbs seem radical in nature, while others (especially those with complex implications) are obviously derived from certain extant normal verbs (but are used with slightly different meanings). What distinguishes the deficient usage of these normal verbs is the fact that they are followed directly by another verb and affect its meaning (and only the main verb may carry an objectival concord).

Template:Encodefirst I no longer know

Template:Encodefirst I knew

Template:Encodefirst I shall (at some specific time) know

Template:Encodefirst I should/would have known

Template:Encodefirst I may indeed know

Template:Encodefirst I will at least know

Template:Encodefirst I may still know

Template:Encodefirst I nearly knew

Template:Encodefirst I shall no longer know

Template:Encodefirst I have to know

References

• Coupez, A., Bastin, Y., and Mumba, E. 1998. Reconstructions lexicales bantoues 2 / Bantu lexical reconstructions 2. Tervuren: Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale.
• de Schryver, G. M., and Prinsloo, D. J. 2000. Towards a sound lemmatisation strategy for the Bantu verb through the use of frequency-based tail slots — with special reference to Cilubà, Sepedi and Kiswahili. Makala ya kongamano la kimataifa Kiswahili 2000. Proceedings: 216–242, 372.
• Doke C. M. 1963. Text Book of Zulu Grammar. Cape Town.
• Doke, C. M., and Mofokeng, S. M. 1974. Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar. Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, 3rd. impression. Template:ISBN.
• Downing, L.J, 2001. Tone (Non-) Transfer in Bantu Verbal Reduplication. Typology of African Prosodic Systems Workshop. Bielefeld University, Germany.
• Güldemann, T. The history of quotative predicates: Can lexical properties arise out of grammatical construction?
• Hyman, L. M. 2003. Segmental phonology. In D. Nurse & G. Philippson (eds.), The Bantu languages, pp. 42–58. London: Routledge/Curzon.
• Hyman, L. M. 2007. Niger–Congo verb extensions: Overview and discussion. In D. L. Payne and J Pen̈a (eds.), Selected proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 149-163. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
• Lodhi, A. Y. 2002. Verbal extensions in Bantu (the case of Swahili and Nyamwezi). In Africa & Asia, No 2, 2002, pp 4–26. Department of Oriental and African Languages, Göteborg University.