Tuoba

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Tuoba
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File:Northern Wei soldier.jpg
A Northern Wei officer. Tomb statuette, Luoyang Museum.

The Tuoba (Chinese) or Tabgatch (Template:Langx, Tabγač), also known by other names, was an influential Xianbei clan in early imperial China. During the Sixteen Kingdoms after the fall of Han and the Three Kingdoms, the Tuoba established and ruled the Dai state in northern China. The dynasty ruled from 310 to 376 and was restored in 386. The same year, the dynasty was renamed Wei, later distinguished in Chinese historiography as the Northern Wei. This powerful state gained control of most of northern China, supporting Buddhism while increasingly sinicizing. As part of this process, in 496, the Emperor Xiaowen changed the imperial clan's surname from Tuoba to Yuan (元). The empire split into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in 535, with the Western Wei's rulers briefly resuming use of the Tuoba name in 554.

A branch of the Tanguts also bore a surname transcribed as Tuoba before their chieftains were given the Chinese surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) by the Tang and Song dynasties respectively. Some of these Tangut Tuobas later adopted the surname Weiming (嵬名), with this branch eventually establishing and ruling the Western Xia in northwestern China from 1038 to 1227.

Names

By the 8th century,Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. the Old Turkic form of the name was Tabγač (𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲), usually anglicized as Tabgatch[1][2]Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. or Tabgach.[3] The name appears in other Central Asian accounts as Tabghāj and TaugashLua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. and in Byzantine Greek sources like Theophylact Simocatta's History as Taugas (Template:Langx) and Taugast (Script error: No such module "Lang".).Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Zhang Xushan and others have argued for the name's ultimate derivation from a transcription into Turkic languages of the Chinese name "Great Han"Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. (大漢, s 大汉, Dà Hàn, MC *Dàj Xàn).

Tuoba is the atonal pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese 拓跋 (Tuòbá), whose pronunciation at the time of its transcription into Middle Chinese has been reconstructed as Template:Transl[citation needed] or Template:Transl.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. The same name also appears with the first character transcribed as 托 or 㩉[4] and with the second character transcribed as Script error: No such module "Lang".;[citation needed] it has also been anglicized as T'o-pa[3] and as Toba.[1][2] The name is also attested as Tufa (禿髮, Tūfà or Tūfǎ),[5] whose Middle Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *tʰuwk-pjot,[citation needed] *T'ak-bwat, or *T'ak-buat.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. The name is also sometimes clarified as the Tuoba Xianbei (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Tuòbá Xiānbēi).[2]Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.

Ethnicity and language

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". According to Hyacinth (Bichurin), an early 19th-century scholar, the Tuoba and their Rouran enemies descended from common ancestors.[6] The Rouran state was undoubtedly multi-ethnic. As the ancient sources regard the Rouran as a separate branch of the Xiongnu[7] Book of Song and Book of Liang connected Rourans to the earlier Xiongnu[8][9] while The Weishu stated that the Rourans were of Donghu origins[10][11] and the Tuoba originated from the Xianbei,[12][13] who were also Donghu's descendants.[14][15] The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multilingual, multi-ethnic confederation.[16][17][18]Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. The Donghu ancestors of Tuoba and Rouran were most likely proto-Mongols.[19]

Alexander Vovin (2007) identifies the Tuoba language as a Mongolic language.[20][21] On the other hand, Juha Janhunen proposed that the Tuoba might have spoken an Oghur Turkic language.[22] René Grousset, writing in the early 20th century, identifies the Tuoba as a Turkic tribe.[23] According to Peter Boodberg, a 20th-century scholar, the Tuoba language was essentially Turkic with Mongolic admixture.[24] Chen Sanping observed that the Tuoba language contains both elements.[25][26] According to Joo-Yup Lee nomadic confederations were often made up of tribes of diverse linguistic backgrounds. For instance, the ruling elite of the Tuoba Wei dynasty (386–534CE) was made up of both Turkic and Mongolic groups. While migrating southward to northern China from their original abode in northeastern Mongolia, the Para-Mongolic Tuoba assimilated several Turkic Dingling (Tiele) tribes such as the Hegu (Qirghiz) and Yizhan. As a result, the Dingling elements constituted as much as a quarter of the Tuoba tribe.[27] Liu Xueyao stated that the Tuoba may have had their own language which should not be assumed to be identical with any other known languages.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Andrew Shimunek (2017) classifies Tuoba (Tabghach) as a "Serbi" (i.e., para-Mongolic) language. Shimunek's Serbi branch also consists of the Tuyuhun and Khitan languages.[28] An-King Lim (2016, 2023) classifies Tuoba (Tabghatch) as Turkic language.[29][30]

History

File:Mongolia III.jpg
Tuoba people and their neighbours, c. III century AD
File:Nirun, Tuyuhun, Yueban, Tuoba Wei.jpg
Rouran Khaganate, Tuyuhun Kingdom, Tuoba Wei 330–555 AD
File:Mongolia XI.jpg
Remnants of Tuoba in Alxa League
File:Mongol Empire c.1207.png
Remnants of Tuoba in Alxa League

The Tuoba were a Xianbei clan.[1][2] The distribution of the Xianbei people ranged from present day Northeast China to Mongolia, and the Tuoba were one of the largest clans among the western Xianbei, ranging from present day Shanxi province and westward and northwestward. They established the state of Dai from 310 to 376 AD[31] and ruled as the Northern Wei from 386 to 536. The Tuoba states of Dai and Northern Wei also claimed to possess the quality of earth in the Chinese Wu Xing theory. All the chieftains of the Tuoba were revered as emperors in the Book of Wei and the History of the Northern Dynasties. A branch of the Tuoba in the west known as the Tufa also ruled the Southern Liang dynasty from 397 to 414 during the Sixteen Kingdoms period.

The Northern Wei started to arrange for Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s.[32] More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.[33] Some Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Chinese elites: the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui married Princess Lanling [zh] of the Northern Wei;Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.[34][35][36]Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.[37][38] Princess Huayang [zh] married Sima Fei [zh], a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty; Princess Jinan [zh] married Lu Daoqian [zh]; and Princess Nanyang [zh] married Xiao Baoyin (萧宝夤), a member of Southern Qi royalty.[39] Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong [zh].[40] One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei's sisters was married to Zhang Huan, a Han Chinese, according to the Book of Zhou. His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi and History of the Northern Dynasties which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong.[41]

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi [zh] as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong (司馬金龍). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.[42]

Genetics

According to Zhou (2006) the haplogroup frequencies of the Tuoba Xianbei were 43.75% haplogroup D, 31.25% haplogroup C, 12.5% haplogroup B, 6.25% haplogroup A and 6.25% "other."[43]

Zhou (2014) obtained mitochondrial DNA analysis from 17 Tuoba Xianbei, which indicated that these specimens were, similarly, completely East Asian in their maternal origins, belonging to haplogroups D, C, B, A and haplogroup G.[44]

Chieftains of Tuoba Clan 219–376 (as Princes of Dai 315–376)

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Posthumous name Full name Period of reign Other
神元 Shényuán 拓拔力微 Tuòbá Lìwéi 219–277 Temple name: 始祖 Shízǔ
章 Zhāng 拓拔悉鹿 Tuòbá Xīlù 277–286
平 Píng 拓拔綽 Tuòbá Chuò 286–293
思 Sī 拓拔弗 Tuòbá Fú 293–294
昭 Zhāo 拓拔祿官 Tuòbá Lùguān 294–307
桓 Huán 拓拔猗㐌 Tuòbá Yītuō 295–305
穆 Mù 拓拔猗盧 Tuòbá Yīlú 295–316
None 拓拔普根 Tuòbá Pǔgēn 316
None 拓拔 Tuòbá[45] 316
平文 Píngwén 拓跋鬱律 Tuòbá Yùlǜ 316–321
惠 Huì 拓拔賀傉 Tuòbá Hèrǔ 321–325
煬 Yáng 拓拔紇那 Tuòbá Hénǎ 325–329 and 335–337
烈 Liè 拓拔翳槐 Tuòbá Yìhuaí 329–335 and 337–338
昭成 Zhaōchéng 拓拔什翼健 Tuòbá Shíyìqiàn 338–376 Regnal name: 建國 Jiànguó

Legacy

File:Name Tuoba in the epitaph of Lixian (Northern Zhou general).jpg
The name "Tuoba" (㩉拔) in the epitaph of Li Xian (Northern Zhou general) (569 CE).

As a consequence of the Northern Wei's extensive contacts with Central Asia, Turkic sources identified Tabgach, also transcribed as Tawjach, Tawġač, Tamghaj, Tamghach, Tafgaj, and Tabghaj, as the ruler or country of China until the 13th century.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.

The Orkhon inscriptions in the Orkhon Valley in modern-day Mongolia from the 8th century identify Tabgach as China.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Template:Quote In the 11th century text, the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ("Compendium of the languages of the Turks"), Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari, writing in Baghdad for an Arabic audience, describes Tawjach as one of the three components comprising China. Template:Quote At the time of his writing, China's northern fringe was ruled by Khitan-led Liao dynasty while the remainder of China proper was ruled by the Northern Song dynasty. Arab sources used Sīn to refer to northern China and Māsīn to represent southern China.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. In his account, al-Kashgari refers to his homeland, around Kashgar, then part of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, as Lower China.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. The rulers of the Karakanids adopted Tamghaj Khan (Turkic: the Khan of China) in their title, and minted coins bearing this title.[46] Much of the realm of the Karakhanids including Transoxania and the western Tarim Basin had been under the rule of the Tang dynasty prior to the Battle of Talas in 751, and the Karakhanids continued to identify with China, several centuries later.[46]

The Tabgatch name for the political entity has also been translated into Chinese as Taohuashi (Template:Zh).[47] This name has been used in China in recent years to promote ethnic unity.[48][49]

See also

References

Citations

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  1. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 60–65. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9.
  2. ^ a b c d Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holcombe, Charles (2001). The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. - A.D. 907. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-8248-2465-5.
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  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.资治通鉴大辞典·上编. 㩉拔氏:(...) 鲜卑氏族之一。即"托跋氏"
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wang Penglin (2018), Linguistic Mysteries of Ethnonyms in Inner Asia, Lexington Books, p. 135, ISBN 978-1-4985-3528-1.
  6. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hyacinth (Bichurin) (1950). Collection of information on peoples lived in Central Asia in ancient times. p. 209.
  7. ^ Litvinsky (2006). History of Civilizations of Central Asia The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. p. 317.
  8. ^ Songshu vol. 95 Archived 2020-06-06 at the Wayback Machine. "Script error: No such module "Lang".。" tr. "Ruìruì, one appellation is Dàtán, also called Tántán; they were also a separate stock of the Xiōngnú."
  9. ^ Liangshu vol. 54 Archived 2018-11-22 at the Wayback Machine. quote: "Script error: No such module "Lang".。" translation: "The Ruìruì nation, possibly a separate stock of the Xiōngnú."
  10. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Golden, B. Peter (2013). "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran". In Curta, Florin; Maelon, Bogdan-Petru (eds.). The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them. Iaşi. p. 55.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Book of Wei. Vol. 103. 蠕蠕，東胡之苗裔也，姓郁久閭氏 [Rúrú, offspring of Dōnghú, surnamed Yùjiŭlǘ]
  12. ^ Wei Shou. Book of Wei. Vol. 1
  13. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Tseng, Chin Yin (2012). The Making of the Tuoba Northern Wei: Constructing Material Cultural Expressions in the Northern Wei Pingcheng Period (398–494 CE) (PhD). University of Oxford. p. 1.
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Sources

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Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Navbox/configuration' not found. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Navbox/configuration' not found. Template:Donghu and Xianbei Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Navbox/configuration' not found. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Authority control/config' not found.

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