Reductions

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A church was always at the center of the reductions; this one is in Loreto, Baja California Sur.

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Reductions (Template:Langx, also called Script error: No such module "Lang".) were settlements established by Spanish rulers and Roman Catholic missionaries in Spanish America and the Spanish East Indies (the Philippines). The Spanish relocated, forcibly in many cases, indigenous inhabitants (Indians or Indios) of their colonies into urban settlements modeled on those in Spain.

The Royal Spanish Academy defines Script error: No such module "Lang". (reduction) as "a grouping into settlement of indigenous people for the purpose of evangelization and assimilation".[1] In colonial Mexico, reductions were called "congregations" (Script error: No such module "Lang".).[2][3]

Forced resettlements aimed to concentrate indigenous people into communities, facilitating civil and religious control over populations.[4] The concentration of the indigenous peoples into towns facilitated the organization and exploitation of their labor. The practice began during Spanish colonization in the Caribbean, relocating populations to be closer to Spanish settlements, often at a distance from their home territories, and likely facilitated the spread of disease.[5] Reductions could be either religious, established and administered by an order of the Roman Catholic church (especially the Jesuits), or secular, under the control of Spanish governmental authorities. The best known, and most successful, of the religious reductions were those developed by the Jesuits in Paraguay and neighboring areas in the 17th century. The largest and most enduring secular reductions were those imposed on the highland people of the former Inca Empire of Peru during the rule of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (1569–1581).

During the early stages of Christianisation of the Americas, Spanish Catholic authorities established on occasion ecclesiastical proto-parish subdivisions (Template:Langx) for the indoctrination of the faith.[6][7]

Linguistic reducción

Linguistic scholars use the term Script error: No such module "Lang". to describe the standardized colonial registers that emerged alongside settlement programs.[8] In regions such as Yucatán, missionaries applied the logic of Script error: No such module "Lang". to Indigenous languages, producing standardized rule‑governed varieties designed for catechesis, confession, and local administration. This process regularized grammar and orthography, introduced Christianized semantic categories, and promoted fixed syntactic patterns modeled on Latin and Spanish. The resulting forms (often referred to as Script error: No such module "Lang"., meaning in this context "rightly ordered" or "civilized") circulated through grammars, dictionaries, sermons, and legal documents, becoming the dominant written register of the period. Examples include Maya reducido and Nahuatl reducido.[9]

Spanish West Indies

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". The policy of reductions was begun in 1503 by Spanish colonists on Caribbean islands. In the words of the Spanish rulers, "It is necessary that the Indians be assigned to towns in which they will live together and that they not remain or wander separated from each other in the backcountry."[10] The Spanish ordered Indian villages to be destroyed and selected sites where new villages should be built. The concentration, or reducción of the Indian population, facilitated the Spaniards' access to Indian labor, the promulgation of Christianity, and the collection of taxes and tribute.[11] Moreover, the reduction of the Indians was intended to break down ethnic and kinship ties and detribalize the residents to create a generic, pan-Indian population, disregarding their numerous tribes and different cultures.[12]

North America

The Spanish began creating reductions in Mexico shortly after Hernan Cortés's conquest in the 1520s. They were begun in Baja California in the 17th century and California in the late 18th century. Reductions in Mexico were more commonly known as congregaciones.[13]

South America

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Indian reductions in the Andes, mostly in present-day Peru and Bolivia, began on a large scale in 1570 during the rule of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo. Toledo worked to remake the society of the former Inca Empire, with some success. Many new buildings were adapted from timber, stone, adobe, which connected new Spanish building forms with local materials, especially plazas, courtyards, and cathedrals.[14] In a few years, he had resettled about 1.4 million Indians into 840 communities, many of which were the nuclei of present-day cities, towns, and villages.[15]

Probably the most famous of the reductions were in the areas of present-day Paraguay and neighboring Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia in the 17th and 18th centuries. These were created by the Jesuit order of the Catholic Church, governed by the Jesuits through indigenous chief-turned-governors.[16] In the case of this Guaraní mission, the Jesuits aimed to make Christians of the Guaraní, impose European values and customs (which were regarded as essential to a Christian life), and isolate and protect the Guaraní from European colonists and slavers.[17][18][19][20] After the territory of the Guarani was transferred to Portugal, forced expulsion by the Portuguese led to the so-called Guaraní War, with heavy losses for the Guaraní. The Portuguese colonizers also secured the expulsion of the Jesuits.[21][20]

The Jesuits could not duplicate the success of the Guaraní mission in the Andes, on the Moxos, among the Chiquitos, or in the Chaco.[22]

National and global suppression of the Society of Jesus put an end to the reduction system. Native wealth were sequestered by national authorities and the natives enslaved. According to David Brading, this was one of the factors for the Latin American Wars of Independence.[23]

Spanish East Indies

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". In the Spanish Philippines, the Spanish colonial government founded hundreds of towns and villages across the archipelago modeled on towns and villages in Spain. The authorities often adopted a policy of reductions for the resettlement of inhabitants from far-flung scattered barrios or barangays to move into a centralized cabecera (town/district capital), where a newly built church and an ayuntamiento (town hall) were situated.[24] This allowed the government to defend, control and Christianize the indigenous population in scattered independent settlements, to conduct population counts, and to collect tributes.[25] This enforced resettlement led to several revolts in the 17th century, often led by community shamans (babaylan). In some cases, entire villages would move deeper into island interiors to escape the reductions.[26]

A similar policy was implemented in the nearby Mariana Islands during the Spanish–Chamorro Wars (1670–1699).[27]

See also

References

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  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Reducciones". Dicionario de la Lengua Espanola. Real Academia Espanola. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  2. ^ Cline, Howard F. "Civil Congregation of the Indians of New Spain, 1598-1606", Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 29, (1947) no. 3, pp. 349–369
  3. ^ Cline, Howard F. "Civil Congregation of the Western Chinantla, New Spain, 1599-1603", The Americas, vol. 12, no. 2, Oct 1955, pp. 115–137
  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Austin, Shawn Michael (2020). Colonial Kinship. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. 219–220. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  5. ^ Altman, Ida. Life and Society in the Early Spanish Caribbean: The Greater Antilles 1493-1550. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 2021, pp.33, 46
  6. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."doctrina" [doctrine]. Diccionario de la lengua española (in español). Madrid: Real Academia Española. 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2023. En América, distrito eclesiástico servido por un sacerdote expresamente nombrado para adoctrinar a la población indígena. [...] En América, pueblo de indios recién convertidos, cuando todavía no se había establecido en él parroquialidad o curato.
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sparks, Garry, ed. (3 July 2017). "Highland Maya Theological Production". The Americas' First Theologies: Early Sources of Post-Contact Indigenous Religion. AAR Religion in Translation. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 9780190678319. Retrieved 22 May 2023. This particular use of the term doctrina by Dominicans to refer to a specific kind of geographic locale that predated the parish in the region should not be confused with the other more general understanding of doctrina as doctrine, teaching, or instruction in the religious or non-religious sense [...].
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hanks, William F. (2010). Converting words: Maya in the age of the cross. The anthropology of Christianity. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25770-2.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Mundy, Barbara E.; Leeming, Ben; Haude, Mary Elizabeth (2025). "The Material Word: Indigenous Knowledge and Christian Texts in the Braidense Lectionary". The Americas. 82 (2): 173–217. doi:10.1017/tam.2025.10079. ISSN 0003-1615.
  10. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Mumford, Jeremy Ravi (2012). Vertical Empire: The General Resettlement of Indians in the Colonial Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8223-5310-2.
  11. ^ Mumford, Jeremy Ravi (2012, Vertical Empire: The General Resettlement of Indians in the Colonial Andes, Durham: Duke University Press, p. 44
  12. ^ Stern, Steve J. (1993), Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 80
  13. ^ Leal, Juan Felipe and Rountree, Mario Huacuja (2011), Economic y sistema de haciendas en Mexico, Juan Pablos, Editor, D. R. Voyeur, pp. 22-23
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Mundy, Barbara E. (2015). The Death of Aztec Tenochtitlan, the Life of Mexico City. University of Texas: University of Texas Press. pp. 99–113. ISBN 978-1477307601.
  15. ^ Mumford, p. 190
  16. ^ Caraman, Philip (1976), The Lost Paradise: the Jesuit Republic in South America, New York: Seabury Press.
  17. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hebblethwaite, Margaret (2010). Paraguay. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 103.
  18. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sarreal, Julia J.S. (2014). The Guarani and their Missions. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 6–7, 20–28. ISBN 9780804791229.
  19. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ganson, Barbara (2003). The Guarani under Spanish Rule in the Rio de la Plata. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5495-8.
  20. ^ a b Pollen, John Hungerford. "The Suppression of the Jesuits (1750-1773)" The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 26 March 2014Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  21. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ganson, Barbara (2003). The Guarani under Spanish Rule in the Rio de la Plata. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5495-8.
  22. ^ Langer, Erick D. (2009), Expecting Pears from an Elm Tree,, Durham: Duke University Press, pp. 15-16
  23. ^ D.A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 453–458.
  24. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Constantino, Renato; Constantino, Letizia R. (1975). "Chapter V - The Colonial Landscape". The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Vol. I) (Sixteenth Printing (January 1998) ed.). Manila, Philippines: Renato Constantino. pp. 60–61. ISBN 971-895-800-2. OL 9180911M.
  25. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abinales, P. N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State and Society in the Philippines. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 53, 68. ISBN 978-0-7425-1024-1. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  26. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Aguilar, Filomeno V. Jr. (1998). Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 27–46. ISBN 9780824820824.
  27. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Navarro, Atoy M. (1999). "Philippines-Marianas Relations in History: Some Notes on Filipino Exiles in Guam". Asian and Pacific Migration Journal. 8 (1–2): 120. doi:10.1177/011719689900800107. S2CID 144752846.

Further reading

Cline, Howard F. "Civil Congregation of the Indians of New Spain, 1598-1606." Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 29, (1947) no. 3, pp. 349–369

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