Colias

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Colias is a genus of butterflies in the family Pieridae. They are often called clouded yellows in the Palearctic and sulphurs (a name also used for other coliadine genera) in North America. The closest living relative is the genus Zerene,[4] which is sometimes included in Colias.

File:BH015 Colias.jpg
Wing venation

This genus occurs throughout the Holarctic, including the arctic regions. They are also found in South America, Africa, China and India. Their caterpillars feed on certain Fabaceae, for example vetches (Vicia). The adults forage for nectar.[5] most are thus beneficial by keeping weeds at bay, some occasionally become nuisance pests on crops like alfalfa. In some species, the wings of males have brilliant ultraviolet reflection, while those of females do not.[6][7] Adults of both sexes have various colour forms. Males are particularly conservative based on their genitalia structures. These structures are difficult to identify making it difficult to classify the Colias.[8]

Most if not all species of this genus, as usual for Coliadinae, do not sequester toxins or other noxious compounds from their food plants. They are therefore a well-loved prey item of insectivores as compared to Pieris of the related Pierinae. They make up this disadvantage by being more nimble and better able to evade attacks by would-be predators.[9]

Notable lepidopterologists who did many studies on this genus included Julius Röber, J. Malcolm Fawcett, George B. Johnson and Henry Rowland-Brown.

Systematics

Hybridization runs rampant in these polytypic and clinal[10] butterflies, confounding molecular phylogenetics studies. In general, cladistic analyses of only one type of data (particularly mtDNA sequences) cannot be considered reliable. Regardless, the evolutionary distance within some "species" is so large that cryptic speciation rather than (or in addition to) interbreeding seems to be the cause. For example, the Beringian populations traditionally assigned to the northern clouded yellow (C. hecla) could warrant recognition as a species; hybridization between North American and Asian populations seems to have played a role in their evolution, but as a whole they appear to be a rather old and distinct lineage.[11]

Thermoregulation

Colias are behavioral thermoregulators. They will move their habitats in order to regulate their body temperature. This leads to them having specific and narrow temperature ranges that they could live in. This leaves the Colias to be extremely vulnerable to climate change.[12] The degree of melanism on their wings and fur thickness are major parts of their thermoregulation. The wing absorption/melanization is determined by the proportions of their coloration. They are in a class of pollinators that require minimum fuel due to their small size.[13] When they need pollen they are attracted to flower patterns in the ultraviolet, similar to themselves.

Flight

Colias spend most of their time in active flight and are very strong flyers. Flying is essential for them mate as well as pollinate. But they are very susceptible to temperature and have flight restrictions based on their body temperature. Flight activity is restricted between 27-40 degrees Celsius. Their flight performance is best once at 33-38 degrees Celsius. In order to maintain these temperatures the Colias will use a lateral basking posture. When they reach a temperature outside of the flight activity zone, Colias will find a shaded area under plants in order to cool down.[14]

Species

The genus Colias has approximately 90 different species. It is often difficult to find differences between the species, since they are mostly identified through their wing structure and pattern.[15]

File:Colias phicomone - Alpen-Gelbling 01 (HS).JPG
Mountain clouded yellow (C. phicomone)

Listed alphabetically:[16]

File:(MHNT) Colias myrmidone myrmidone - Stará Turá Slovaquie - male.jpg
Danube clouded yellow (C. myrmidone)

Distinguishing characteristics

Colias are usually some shade of yellow, orange or white. Their uppersides feature black borders (usually solid in males, often with pale spots in females). They always perch with wings closed, but upperside pattern may be seen faintly through the wing, or glimpsed in flight.[17]

References

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  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Josef Grieshuber & Gerardo Lamas (2007). "A synonymic list of the genus Colias Fabricius, 1807 (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)" (PDF). Mitteilungen der Münchner Entomologischen Gesellschaft. 97: 131–171. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-05-09.
  2. ^ Bjorn Petersen, 1963. The male genitalia of some Colias species.Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 1: 135-156.[1] Script error: No such module "webarchive".
  3. ^ Lucien A Berger, 1986 Systématique du genre Colias F: Lepidoptera-Pieridae Bruxelles: Imprimerie des Sciences, 1986.
  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Andrew V. Z. Brower (November 16, 2006). "Coliadinae". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved August 7, 2008.
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Watt, Ward B.; Hoch, Peter C.; Mills, Susan G. (1974-12-01). "Nectar resource use by Colias butterflies". Oecologia. 14 (4): 353–374. doi:10.1007/BF00384578. ISSN 1432-1939.
  6. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.M. L. Lim & D. Li (2005). "Extreme ultraviolet sexual dimorphism in jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 89 (3): 397–406. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00704.x.
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Andrew V. Z. Brower (November 16, 2006). "Colias". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved August 7, 2008.
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."View of Hybridisation in Colias butterflies (Lepidoptera, Pieridae): identification of natural hybrids using unlinked molecular markers | Acta Biologica Sibirica". journal.asu.ru. Retrieved 2024-11-22.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Robert B. Srygley & Joel G. Kingsolver (1998). "Red-wing blackbird reproductive behaviour and the palatability, flight performance, and morphology of temperate pierid butterflies (Colias, Pieris, and Pontia)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 64 (1): 41–55. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01532.x.
  10. ^ Paul C. Hammond, 1990 Patterns of geographic variation and evolution in polytypic butterflies Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 29(1-2):54-76. [2] Script error: No such module "webarchive".
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Christopher W. Wheat & Ward B. Watt (2008). "A mitochondrial-DNA-based phylogeny for some evolutionary-genetic model species of Colias butterflies (Lepidoptera, Pieridae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47 (3): 893–902. Bibcode:2008MolPE..47..893W. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.03.013. PMID 18442929.
  12. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kingsolver, Joel G.; Buckley, Lauren B. (2015-03-07). "Climate variability slows evolutionary responses of Colias butterflies to recent climate change". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1802) 20142470. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.2470. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 4344148. PMID 25631995.
  13. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Watt, Ward B.; Hoch, Peter C.; Mills, Susan G. (1974-12-01). "Nectar resource use by Colias butterflies". Oecologia. 14 (4): 353–374. doi:10.1007/BF00384578. ISSN 1432-1939.
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kingsolver, Joel G.; Buckley, Lauren B. (2015-03-07). "Climate variability slows evolutionary responses of Colias butterflies to recent climate change". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1802) 20142470. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.2470. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 4344148. PMID 25631995.
  15. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Queen Alexandra's Sulphur Colias alexandra W.H. Edwards, 1863 | Butterflies and Moths of North America". www.butterfliesandmoths.org. Retrieved 2024-11-22.
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Markku Savela. "Colias Fabricius, 1807". Lepidoptera and some other life forms.
  17. ^ Brock, J.P. & Kaufman, K. Kaufman Field Guide to Butterflies of North America. Houghton Mifflin, 2003, p. 60.

Further reading

  • Vladimir Lukhtanov & Alexander G. Lukhtanov, 1994 Die Tagfalter Nordwestasiens: (Lepidoptera, Diurna) V. Eitschberger Template:ISBN
  • Joseph T. Verhulst (English translation R. Leestmans, editing E. Benton and R. Leestmans), 2000 Les Colias du Globe translation Monograph of the genus Colias Keltern, Germany: Goecke & Evers Template:ISBN
  • Glassberg, Jeffrey Butterflies through Binoculars, The West (2001)
  • Guppy, Crispin S. and Shepard, Jon H. Butterflies of British Columbia (2001)
  • James, David G. and Nunnallee, David Life Histories of Cascadia Butterflies (2011)
  • Pelham, Jonathan Catalogue of the Butterflies of the United States and Canada (2008)
  • Pyle, Robert Michael The Butterflies of Cascadia (2002)

Colias [fr] "Le genre Colias" provides distribution information in French.

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