Litotes

Template:Short description Template:DMCA In rhetoric, litotes (/laɪˈtoʊtiːz, ˈlaɪtətiːz/, US: /ˈlɪtətiːz/), is a figure of speech and form of irony to emphasize a point by stating a negative to affirm a positive. In speech, litotes may depend on intonation and emphasis; for example, the phrase "not bad" can be intonated differently so as to mean either "mediocre" or "excellent". The interpretation of negation may also depend on context, including cultural context. Litotes can be used euphemistically to diminish the harshness of an observation: "He isn't the cleanest person I know" could be used to indicate that someone is a messy person. A form of understatement, litotes is always deliberate with the intention of emphasis, often using double negatives for effect. Litotes is also known classically as antenantiosis or moderatour.

The use of litotes is common in many languages and dialects. It is a feature of Old English poetry and of the Icelandic sagas and is a means of much stoical restraint. The word litotes is of Greek origin (), meaning 'simplicity', and is derived from the word (), meaning 'plain, simple, small or meager'.

Classical litotes

The first known mention of litotes is in a letter from Cicero in 55 BC (De Oratore). Cicero uses the word to mean simplicity (or frugality) of life. The meaning and the function of the word changed from 'simple' to the idea of understatement that involves double negatives, a way to state things simply.

Old Norse had several types of litotes. These points are denied negatives ("She's not a terrible wife" meaning "she's a good wife"), denied positives ("He's not a great learner" meaning 'he has difficulty learning'), creating litotes without negating anything, and creating litotes using a negative adjective ("Days spent in his home left him unenthused" meaning 'he preferred to be out and about').

Litotes and ethos

Litotes can be used to establish ethos, or credibility, by expressing modesty or downplaying one's accomplishments to gain the audience's favor. In the book Rhetorica ad Herennium, litotes is addressed as a member of the Figures of Thought known as deminutio, or understatement. It is listed in conjunction with antenantiosis and meiosis, two other forms of rhetorical deminutio. For example, a very accomplished artist might say "I'm not a bad painter", and by refraining from bragging but still acknowledging his skill, the artist is seen as talented, modest, and credible.

Examples

Litotes	Instead of saying
"Not bad."	"Good."
"It's not my favorite..."	"I don't like it."
"Not too shabby!"	"Nice!"
"Non-trivial."	"Very complex."
"It's not the cheapest."	"It's somewhat expensive."
"Not unlike..."	"Like..."
"Not happy, Jan!"	"Very unhappy, Jan!"
"It's no masterpiece."	"It's mediocre."
"She's no oil painting"	"She's ugly"

Other languages

Classical Greek

In Classical Greek, instances of litotes can be found as far back as Homer. In Book 24 of the Iliad, Zeus describes Achilles as follows: Template:Langx, meaning that he is both wise and prudent.

French

In French, (not bad) is used similarly to the English, while ('he is not disagreeable') is another example, actually meaning ('he is nice'), though the speaker is reluctant to admit it. Another typical example is ('It's not stupid'), generally said to admit a clever suggestion without showing oneself as too enthusiastic. (As with all litotes, this phrase can also be used with its literal meaning that the thing is not stupid but rather may be clever or occupy the middle ground between stupid and clever.)

One of the most famous litotes of French literature is in Pierre Corneille's (1636). The heroine, Chimène, says to her lover Rodrigue, who just killed her father: ('Go, I hate you not'), meaning 'I love you'.

Chinese

In Chinese, the phrase (Pinyin: , traditional characters , literally 'not wrong') is often used to present something as very good or correct. In this way, it is distinct in meaning from the English 'not bad' (though not 'not bad at all') or the general use of the French . Also, the phrase (pinyin , traditional characters , literally 'not simple') is used to refer to an impressive feat.

Danish

In Danish, understatements using litotes are seen as characteristic of the Jutlandic dialect. A stereotypical example is the phrase ('it is not even so bad'), which is used to mean 'that's great'.

Dutch and German

Similarly, in Dutch, the phrase (also literally meaning 'not bad') is often used to present something as very good or correct, as is German .

Italian

In Italian, (literally 'less bad') is similar to the English expression 'thank goodness' or 'just as well' – used to comment that a situation is more desirable than its negative; (literally 'not (at all) bad') has the same meaning as the English 'not bad'.

Latin

In Latin, an example of litotes can be found in Ovid's Metamorphoses: (bk. 1 ln. 692, 'not one occasion'), meaning 'on more than one occasion'. Some common words are derived from litotes: from ('not none') is understood to mean 'several', while from ('not never') is used for 'sometimes'.

Russian

Perhaps the most common litotes in Russian is ('not bad'). It is permissible to say something is ('very not bad') to signify that it is, in fact, very good. An example of litotes can be found in Nikolai Gogol's The Government Inspector, in which the Mayor says: "There's no such thing as a man with no sins on his conscience", meaning 'All men have sins on their conscience' (Act 1, Scene 1). In this case, it is used to downplay the Mayor's statement – a euphemism of sorts – making it less harsh than its understood meaning.

Spanish

In Spanish, it is usual to say ('It's not at all foolish'), as a form of compliment (i.e., to say something was smart or clever). Another common Spanish phrase is (cf. Italian above), meaning literally 'less bad', but used in the same way as the English phrases "Thank goodness!" or "It's just as well".

Swedish

In Swedish, it is quite common to use litotes. For example, when one chances to meet someone after a long time it is usual to say: ('It wasn't yesterday').

Turkish

In Turkish, it is quite common to say ('Not bad at all!') as a form of compliment.

Welsh

In Welsh, ('To be disappointed on the best side') means 'to be pleasantly surprised'.

See also

• Antiphrasis
• Hyperbole

References

Bibliography

• Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 680. ISBN 0674362500. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• Hollander, Lee M. (1938). "Litotes in Old Norse". Vol. 53, no. 1. PMLA. pp. 1–33. JSTOR 458399.
• Lanham, Richard A. (1991). A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0520076699.

External links

• Shovel, Martin (26 March 2015). "Litotes: The most common rhetorical device you've never heard of". The Guardian.
• Biblical Litotes
• Definition and examples