Lullubi

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Lullubi Kingdom
𒇻𒇻𒉈𒆠
3100 BC–675 BC
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Territory of the Lullubi in the Mesopotamia area.
Common languagesUnclassified (Lullubian?)
Akkadian (inscriptions)
Religion
Mesopotamian religions
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraAntiquity
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Template:Infobox country/formernext
Today part ofIraq
Iran

Lullubi, Lulubi (Template:Langx), more commonly known as Lullu,[1][2][3][4] were a group of Bronze Age tribes who existed and disappeared during the 3rd millennium BC. They were from a region known as Lulubum, now the Sharazor plain of the Zagros Mountains of modern-day Sulaymaniyah Governorate in Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Lullubi was a neighbour and sometimes ally with the Hurrian Simurrum kingdom and came into conflict with the Semitic Akkadian Empire and Assyria.[5] Frayne (1990) identified their city Lulubuna or Luluban with the region's modern town of Halabja.

Historical references

Legends

The early Sumerian legend Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird, set in the reign of Enmerkar of Uruk, alludes to the "mountains of Lulubi" as being where the character of Lugalbanda encounters the gigantic Anzû bird while searching for the rest of Enmerkar's army en route to siege Aratta.[6]

Akkadian Empire and Gutian dynasty

File:Victory stele of Naram Sin 9068.jpg
The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (circa 2250 BC), commemorating the victory of Akkadian Empire king Naram-Sin (standing left) over Lullubi mountain tribe and their king Satuni. Musée du Louvre.
File:Darband-i Belula.jpg
Relief of the Lulubian Tardunni, known as the Darband-i Belula, the Darband-i Hurin or Sheikhan relief, Kurdistan, Iraq

Lullubum appears in historical times as one of the lands Sargon the Great subjugated within his Akkadian Empire, along with the neighboring province of Gutium, which was possibly of the same Hurrian origin as the Lullubi. Sargon's grandson Naram Sin defeated the Lullubi and their king Satuni, and had his famous victory stele made in commemoration:

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"Naram-Sin the powerful ... . Sidur and Sutuni, princes of the Lulubi, gathered together and they made war against me."

— Akkadian inscription on the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.[7]

After the Akkadian Empire fell to the Gutians, the Lullubians rebelled against the Gutian king Erridupizir, according to Mesopotamian inscriptions:

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Ka-Nisba, king of Simurrum, instigated the people of Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt. Amnili, general of [the enemy Lullubi] ... made the land [rebel] ... Erridu-pizir, the mighty, king of Gutium and of the four quarters hastened [to confront] him ... In a single day he captured the pass of Urbillum at Mount Mummum. Further, he captured Nirishuha.

— Inscription R2:226-7 of Erridupizir.[8]

Neo-Sumerian Empire

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File:Tablet of Shulgi.JPG
Tablet of Shulgi, glorifies the King and his victories on the Lullubi people, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq

Following the short lived Gutian period, the Neo-Sumerian Empire (Ur-III) ruler Shulgi is said to[<span title="Script error: No such module "decodeEncode".">weasel words] have raided Lullubi at least 9 times; by the time of Amar-Sin, Lullubians formed a contingent in the military of Ur, suggesting that the region was then under Neo-Sumerian control.[citation needed]

File:Lullubi-ki on the Anubanini Rock Relief.jpg
Lullubi-ki ("Country of the Lullubi") on the Anubanini rock relief

Another famous rock relief depicting the Lullubian king Anubanini with the Assyrian-Babylonian goddess Ishtar, captives in tow, is now thought to date to the Ur-III period; however, a later Assyrian- Babylonian legendary retelling of the exploits of Sargon the Great mentions Anubanini as one of his opponents.[citation needed]

Babylonian and Assyrian interactions

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In the following (second) millennium BC, the term "Lullubi" or "Lullu" seems to have become a generic Babylonian/Assyrian term for "highlander" without reference to any single ethnic group, while the original region of Lullubi became the Hurrian inhabited Zamua. However, the "land of Lullubi" makes a reappearance in the late 12th century BC, when both Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon (in c. 1120 BC) and Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria (in 1113 BC) subdued it. Neo-Assyrian kings of the following centuries also recorded campaigns and conquests in the area of Lullubum. Most notably, Ashurnasirpal II had to suppress a revolt among the Zamuan chiefs in 881 BC, during which they constructed a wall in the Bazian pass between modern Kirkuk (the Assyrian city of Arrapha) and Sulaymaniyah in a failed attempt to keep the Assyrians out.

They were said to have had 19 walled cities in their land, as well as a large supply of horses, cattle, metals, textiles and wine, which were carried off by Ashurnasirpal. Local chiefs or governors of the Zamua region continued to be mentioned down to the end of Esarhaddon's reign (669 BC) after which they disappear from history.

Representations

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Defeated Lullubis in Akkadian representations
File:Prisoner of the Akkadian Empire period possibly Warka ancient Uruk LOUVRE AO 5683.jpg
Barbarian prisoner of the Akkadian Empire, nude, fettered, drawn by nose ring, with pointed beard, long hair and vertical braid. 2350-2000 BC, Louvre Museum.[9]
File:Lullubi victim with pointed beard and long braided hair (detail).jpg
Lullubi victim with pointed beard and long braided hair. Rock relief at Darband-iGawr. The depiction of the vanquished Lullubis is also similar in the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.[10]

In depictions of them, the Lullubi were represented as warlike mountain people.[11] The Lullubi are often shown bare-chested and wearing animal skins. They had short beards and their hair was long and worn in a thick braid, as can be seen on the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.[10]

Rulers

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The following is a list of known rulers of the Lullubi kingdom.[12][13]

  1. Immashkush (c. 2400 BC)[14]
  2. Anubanini (c. 2350 BC) he ordered to make an inscription on the rock near Sar-e Pol-e Zahab.[15]
  3. Satuni (c. 2270 BC contemporary with Naram-Sin king of Akkad and Khita king of Awan)
  4. Irib (c. 2037 BC)
  5. Darianam (c. 2000 BC)
  6. Ikki (precise dates unknown)[15]
  7. Tar ... duni (precise dates unknown) son of Ikki. His inscription is found not far from the inscription of Anubanini.[15]
  8. Nur-Adad (c. 881 – 880 BC)
  9. Zabini (c. 881 BC)
  10. Hubaia (c. 830 BC) vassal of Assyrians
  11. Dada (c. 715 BC)
  12. Larkutla (c. 675 BC)

Lullubi rock reliefs

Various Lullubian reliefs can be seen in the area of Sar-e Pol-e Zohab, the best preserved of which is the Anubanini rock relief. They all show a ruler trampling an enemy, and most also show a deity facing the ruler. Another relief can be found about 200 meters away, in a style similar to the Anubanini relief, but this time with a beardless ruler.[16] The attribution to a specific ruler remains uncertain.[16][17]

Anubanini rock relief

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Other Lullubi reliefs

Language

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Lullubian
Lullubean
Native toLullubi Kingdom, Iran and Iraq
RegionZagros Mountains
EthnicityLullibi
Extinct7th century BC
Language codes
ISO 639-3None (mis)
GlottologNone
ELPTemplate:Endangered Languages Project
LinguasphereTemplate:Infobox language/lingualist
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The language of the Lullubi is regarded as an unclassified language[21] because it is unattested in written record. However, the term Lullubi significantly appears to be of Hurrian origin rather than Semitic or Indo-European, which had yet to arrive in the region, and the names of its known rulers have Hurrian or more rarely Semitic influence, with no trace of Indo-European influence such as Iranic or Indo-Aryan.[22]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Eidem, Jesper; Læssøe, Jørgen (1992). The Shemshāra Archives 2: The Administrative Texts. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 22, 51–54. ISBN 978-87-7304-227-4.
  2. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Speiser, Ephraim Avigdor (2017-01-30). Mesopotamian Origins: The Basic Population of the Near East. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-5128-1881-9.
  3. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Campbell, Lyle (2017-10-03). Language Isolates. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-317-61091-5.
  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Potts, Daniel T. (2014). Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-933079-9.
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. pp. 115–116. ISBN 9781134520626.
  6. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Black, J.A.; Cunningham, G.; Ebeling, J.; Flückiger-Hawker, E.; Robson, E.; Taylor, J.; Zólyomi, G. (1998–2006). "Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird (t.1.8.2.2)". The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. Oriental Institute, University of Oxford. Retrieved 2026-05-22.
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Babylonian & Oriental Record. 1895. p. 27.
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. pp. 115–116. ISBN 9781134520626 – via Google.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Louvre Museum Official Website". cartelen.louvre.fr.
  10. ^ a b "The hair of the Lullubi is long and worn in a thick braid. They wear animal skins, while the Akkadian soldiers wear the proper attire for battle, helmets and military tunics." in Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bahrani, Zainab (2008). Rituals of War: The Body and Violence in Mesopotamia. Zone Books. p. 109. ISBN 9781890951849.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bury, John Bagnell; Cook, Stanley Arthur; Adcock, Frank Ezra (1975). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Egyptian and Hittite empires to c. 1000 B.C. University Press. p. 505. ISBN 9780521086912.
  12. ^ Qashqai, 2011.
  13. ^ Legrain, 1922; Cameron, 1936; D’yakonov, 1956; The Cambridge History of Iran; Hinz, 1972; The Cambridge Ancient History; Majidzadeh, 1991; Majidzadeh, 1997.
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cameron, George G. (1936). History of Early Iran (PDF). The University of Chicago Press. p. 35.
  15. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cameron, George G. (1936). History of Early Iran (PDF). The University of Chicago Press. p. 41.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Osborne, James F. (2014). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology. SUNY Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781438453255.
  17. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Vanden Berghe, Louis. Relief Sculptures de Iran Ancien. pp. 19–21.
  18. ^ a b c d Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Osborne, James F. (2014). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology. SUNY Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 9781438453255.
  19. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Osborne, James F. (2014). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology. SUNY Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 9781438453255.
  20. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Frayne, Douglas (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). University of Toronto Press. pp. 707 ff. ISBN 9780802058737.
  21. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Rubio, Gonzalo (13 January 2025). "The Languages of the Ancient Near East (in A Companion to the Ancient Near East, 2nd ed., 2007)".
  22. ^ Tischler 1977–2001: vol. 5/6: 70–71. On the Lullubeans in general, see Klengel 1987–1990; Eidem 1992: 50–4.

Sources

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