Relative age effect

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Redirect-distinguish".

File:Month of birth distribution UEFA youth tournaments 2010.pdf
The distribution, according to month of birth, of players involved in UEFA organised international youth football tournaments in 2010/11
File:EU 27 nations birth distribution by month 2000 to 2010.pdf
The distribution of births according to month in the general population

The term relative age effect (RAE), also known as birthdate effect or birth date effect, is used to describe a bias, evident in the upper echelons of youth sport[1] and academia,[2] where participation is higher amongst those born earlier in the relevant selection period (and lower for those born later in the selection period) than would be expected from the distribution of births. The selection period is usually the calendar year, the academic year or the sporting season.[3]

The difference in maturity often contributes to the effect,[4] with age category, skill level and sport context also impacting the risk of the relative age effect. Mid to late adolescent, regional to nation, popular sports seeing the highest risk, and under 11, recreational, unpopular sports seeing the lowest risk.[5]

The terms month of birth bias and season of birth bias are used to describe similar effect but are fundamentally different. Season of birth examines the influence of different prenatal and perinatal seasonal environmental factors like sunlight, temperature, or viral exposure during gestation, that relate to health outcomes.[6] Conversely, the relative age effect shifts with selection dates[7] moving the advantage with the selection period.[8] With influence from social agents,[9] children born soon after the cut-off date are typically included, and a child born soon before the cut-off date excluded.

In sport

Youth sport participation is often organized into annual age-groups. The IOC,[10] FIFA[11] and the six international football confederations (AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC and UEFA[12]) all use 1 January as their administrative cut-off which is most commonly used but, 1 September is used in the UK,[5] like many other locations around the world.[13] This grouping can be seen in the first graph showing the distribution of births, by month, for the European Union over the ten years from 2000 to 2009. The birth rate correlates closely with the number of days in a month with a slight increase in the summer months. The second graph, by the month, shows the birth distribution of over 4,000 players involved in the qualifying squads for U17, U19 and U21 tournaments organised by UEFA in 2010–11.

This declining distribution from the beginning of the year for professional athlete participation has been seen in sports like: association football,[14] baseball,[15] cricket,[16] gymnastics,[17] handball,[18] ice hockey,[19] rugby league,[20] running,[21] skiing,[22] swimming,[17] tennis,[23] and the Youth Olympic Games,[24] as well as non-physical sports like shooting.[25]

Malcolm Gladwell's book Outliers: The Story of Success and the book SuperFreakonomics by Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner, popularised the issue in respect of Canadian ice-hockey players, European football players, and US Major League baseball players.[citation needed]

Contributing factors

File:RAE Image.jpg
Theoretical model of the social agents which influence relative age effect

Relative age effects are caused by birthdate eligibility rules but can be affected by parents, coaches and athletes through other mechanisms.[26] The Pygmalion effect, Galatea effect, and Matthew effect are examples of effects which impact player motivation.[27]

In addition to these social factors contextual differences change the distribution with decreased effects in female sports,[28][29] unpopular sports,[30] at different ages,[31] individual sports,[32] or sports with a lower reliance on body size,[33] with an expected increased effect in male sports, popular sports, or competitive sports.[31] The sports popularity in a geographical or cultural area will affect the relative age distribution relative, with examples seen in volleyball[34] and American football.[35]

The early maturation levels giving physical advantages to first quarter individuals can create the bias,[31] seen in players' height in basketball,[36] dominant hand in tennis,[37] or size in a cricket position,[38] but physical size isn't always the cause.[39] Older individuals also gain more competence[40] and self-efficacy,[41] increasing the performance gap. These advantages lead to increased dropout rates for Q1 births.[42][43] However, the bias for sports where height and mass impedes flexibility, rotational speed and the strength to mass ratio, maturational delay may be preferred as seen in gymnastics.[44]

With an adult group the relative age has the opposite meaning,[45] as performance declines in age,[46] and is more significant with more physically demanding sports,[47] depending on what age the average peak performance level is, in that sport.[48] The "underdog effect" has shown that those late birth individuals may see better chances[49] if they are selected to play,[29] with the advantage decreasing after selection.[50]

Playing position, federation membership, and individual and team performance also contribute to the effect,[18] with older players having a higher risk of injury.[51]

Reducing the relative age effect

Various methods have been suggested and tested to reduce the relative age effect like moving the cut off dates,[34] expanding the age group range,[52] birthdate quotas for the players,[53] the average team age (ATA) method for eligibility,[54][55] or grouping by height and weight.[34] Some methods have struggled to find success due to the effect moving with selection dates.[7] Making the relative age known to the individuals in the environment have shown less bias in talent identification reducing the relative age effect.[56]

Birthday banding,[57] and re-calculating scores based on relative age,[58] are other methods used to reduce the effects,[59] with bio-banding seeing the most research, showing benefit to early and late maturing players,[60] both in academy football[61] and in recreational football.[62] Bio-banding can help promote appropriate training loads and reduce injury risk,[63] while increasing technical demands from players,[64] however, sports already categorized by maturation metrics like Judo,[65] may not see those effects. More longitudinal studies are needed,[66] alongside more reliable ways to band individuals,[67] as biological, psychological and social development doesn't progress in synchrony,[68] creating different imbalances in the groups.[citation needed]

In education

File:Oxford 10 years.png
Oxford University RAE profile in aggregate 2004/5 to 2013/14

The Academic year is decided by education authorities with August or September being common cut-off dates in the Northern Hemisphere and February or March cut-off dates in the Southern Hemisphere. Many countries, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, use the calendar year as academic year, grouping children born in the same year together per grade.

The third graph illustrates the relative age effect in graduations from the University of Oxford over a 10-year period, which has also been seen in UK Nobel laureates.[69]

The relative age effect and reversal effect are evident in education,[70] with older students on average scoring higher marks, getting into more gifted and talented programs,[71] and being more likely to attend higher education[72] in academic schools over vocational schools,[73] not necessarily due to higher intelligence.[74] The Matthew effect again plays a role, as the skills learned early in education compound over time, increasing the advantage,[75] with older students becoming more likely to take up leadership roles.[76] However, like in sport, the effect diminishes over time after middle school,[77] and those born later in the year perform better in university education.[78]

In leadership positions

A relative age effect has also been observed in the context of leadership. An over-representation starts in high-school leadership activities such as sports team captain or club president.[76] Then in adult life, this over-representation has been observed in top managerial positions (CEOs of S&P 500 companies),[79] and in top political positions, both in the USA (senators and representatives),[80] and in Finland (MPs).[81]

Seasonal birth effect

Seasonal birth in humans varies, and alongside the relative age effect the epidemiology of seasonal births show over-representations in health conditions like ADHD[82] and schizophrenia,[83][84] with one study finding "that higher school starting age lowers the propensity to commit crime at young ages."[85] However, other studies failed to replicate relative age effects on temperament, mood, or physical development.[70]

Obesity has been linked to season of birth with increased chances,[86] potentially due to surrounding temperature at birth,[87] with winter and spring having the highest correlation, but physical inactivity is still a larger risk factor.[88]

Summer babies have increased chances of specific learning difficulties,[6][89] and winter and spring babies related to schizophrenia and mania/bipolar disorder. Schizoaffective disorder can be related to December–March births, major depression to March–May births, and autism to March births.[90]

Increased rates in seasonal affective disorder relate to the influence of seasonal birth in humans.[91]

See also

Page Template:Div col/styles.css has no content.

References

Page Template:Reflist/styles.css has no content.

  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Birthdate Effects: A Review of the Literature from 1990-on" (PDF). Cambridgeassessment.org.uk. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  2. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Claire Crawford; Lorraine Dearden; Costas Meghir. "When You Are Born Matters: The Impact of Date of Birth on Child Cognitive Outcomes in England" (PDF). Cee.lse.ac.uk. ISSN 2045-6557. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  3. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kelly, Adam L.; Côté, Jean; Jeffreys, Mark; Turnnidge, Jennifer, eds. (2021-06-04). Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport: Exploring Organizational Structures and Creating Appropriate Settings. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003163572. ISBN 978-1-003-16357-2. S2CID 241069004.
  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Long-term relative age effect: Evidence from Italian football". VoxEU.org. 23 April 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  5. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cobley, Stephen; Baker, Joseph; Wattie, Nick; McKenna, Jim (2009). "Annual age-grouping and athlete development: a meta-analytical review of relative age effects in sport". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 39 (3): 235–256. doi:10.2165/00007256-200939030-00005. ISSN 0112-1642. PMID 19290678. S2CID 32633686.
  6. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Barry, H.; Bary, H. (1961). "Season of birth. An epidemiological study in psychiatry". Archives of General Psychiatry. 5: 292–300. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710150074012. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 13687345.
  7. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Helsen, Werner F.; Starkes, Janet L.; Van Winckel, Jan (2000-11-01). "Effect of a change in selection year on success in male soccer players". American Journal of Human Biology. 12 (6): 729–735. doi:10.1002/1520-6300(200011/12)12:6<729::AID-AJHB2>3.0.CO;2-7. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 11534065. S2CID 24013421.
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Musch, Jochen; Hay, Roy (1999-03-01). "The Relative Age Effect in Soccer: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Systematic Discrimination against Children Born Late in the Competition Year". Sociology of Sport Journal. 16 (1): 54–64. doi:10.1123/ssj.16.1.54. ISSN 0741-1235.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hancock, David J.; Adler, Ashley L.; Côté, Jean (2013). "A proposed theoretical model to explain relative age effects in sport". European Journal of Sport Science. 13 (6): 630–637. doi:10.1080/17461391.2013.775352. hdl:1974/14350. ISSN 1536-7290. PMID 24251740. S2CID 32336640.
  10. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Olympic Documents - Athletes, Olympic Games, IOC and More" (PDF). 29 July 2021.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."FIFA.com" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-30. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  12. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.UEFA https://web.archive.org/web/20180621143622/https://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/competitions/Regulations/01/65/31/62/1653162_DOWNLOAD.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2021. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wattie, Nick; Cobley, Stephen; Baker, Joseph (2008). "Towards a unified understanding of relative age effects". Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (13): 1403–1409. doi:10.1080/02640410802233034. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 18825541. S2CID 11241958.
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ashworth, John; Heyndels, Bruno (1 August 2007). "Selection Bias and Peer Effects in Team Sports: The Effect of Age Grouping on Earnings of German Soccer Players". Journal of Sports Economics. 8 (4): 355–377. doi:10.1177/1527002506287695. ISSN 1527-0025. S2CID 154330153.
  15. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Herring, Chad H.; Beyer, Kyle S.; Fukuda, David H. (2021). "Relative Age Effects as Evidence of Selection Bias in Major League Baseball Draftees (2013–2018)". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 35 (3): 644–651. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000003951. ISSN 1064-8011. PMID 33470599. S2CID 231651477.
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Edwards, S. (1994-07-21). "Born too late to win?". Nature. 370 (6486): 186. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..186E. doi:10.1038/370186a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 8028664. S2CID 5420946.
  17. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Baxter-Jones, A. D. (1995). "Growth and development of young athletes. Should competition levels be age related?". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 20 (2): 59–64. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520020-00001. ISSN 0112-1642. PMID 7481282. S2CID 45304762.
  18. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Rubia, Alfonso de la; Bjørndal, Christian Thue; Sánchez-Molina, Joaquín; Yagüe, José María; Calvo, Jorge Lorenzo; Maroto-Izquierdo, Sergio (2020). "The relationship between the relative age effect and performance among athletes in World Handball Championships". PLOS ONE. 15 (3) e0230133. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1530133R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230133. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7098603. PMID 32214322.
  19. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Addona, Vittorio; Yates, Philip A. (15 October 2010). "A Closer Look at the Relative Age Effect in the National Hockey League". Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports. 6 (4). doi:10.2202/1559-0410.1227. ISSN 1559-0410. S2CID 120240341.
  20. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Till, K.; Cobley, S.; Wattie, N.; O'Hara, J.; Cooke, C.; Chapman, C. (2010). "The prevalence, influential factors and mechanisms of relative age effects in UK Rugby League". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 20 (2): 320–329. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00884.x. ISSN 1600-0838. PMID 19486487. S2CID 33840698.
  21. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Romann, Michael; Cobley, Stephen (6 April 2015). "Relative Age Effects in Athletic Sprinting and Corrective Adjustments as a Solution for Their Removal". PLOS ONE. 10 (4) e0122988. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022988R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122988. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4386815. PMID 25844642.
  22. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Romann, Michael; Fuchslocher, Jörg (1 April 2014). "Survival and Success of the Relatively Oldest in Swiss Youth Skiing Competition". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 9 (2): 347–356. doi:10.1260/1747-9541.9.2.347. ISSN 1747-9541. S2CID 144244440.
  23. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ulbricht, Alexander; Fernandez-Fernandez, Jaime; Mendez-Villanueva, Alberto; Ferrauti, Alexander (2015). "The Relative Age Effect and Physical Fitness Characteristics in German Male Tennis Players". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 14 (3): 634–642. ISSN 1303-2968. PMC 4541129. PMID 26336351.
  24. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Raschner, Christian; Müller, Lisa; Hildebrandt, Carolin (1 December 2012). "The role of a relative age effect in the first winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 46 (15): 1038–1043. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091535. ISSN 0306-3674. PMID 22976907. S2CID 37476293.
  25. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Delorme, Nicolas; Raspaud, Michel (1 August 2009). "Is there an influence of relative age on participation in non-physical sports activities? The example of shooting sports". Journal of Sports Sciences. 27 (10): 1035–1042. doi:10.1080/02640410902926438. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 19847687. S2CID 1624812.
  26. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Thompson, Angus H.; Barnsley, Roger H.; Stebelsky, George (1991-06-01). ""Born to Play Ball" The Relative Age Effect and Major League Baseball". Sociology of Sport Journal. 8 (2): 146–151. doi:10.1123/ssj.8.2.146. ISSN 0741-1235.
  27. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Harter, Susan (1978). "Effectance Motivation Reconsidered. Toward a Developmental Model". Human Development. 21 (1): 34–64. doi:10.1159/000271574. ISSN 0018-716X.
  28. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abel, Ernest L.; Kruger, Michael M.; Pandya, Kalyani (August 2011). "A relative age effect in men's but not women's professional baseball: 1943-1954". Psychological Reports. 109 (1): 285–288. doi:10.2466/05.PR0.109.4.285-288. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 22049668. S2CID 23937679.
  29. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Romann, Michael; Fuchslocher, Jörg (2014-06-01). "The Need to Consider Relative Age Effects in Women's Talent Development Process". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 118 (3): 651–662. doi:10.2466/30.10.PMS.118k24w8. ISSN 0031-5125. PMID 25068738. S2CID 207391641.
  30. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wattie, Nick. "A historical examination of relative age effects in Canadian hockey players". International Journal of Sport Psychology.
  31. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Delorme, N.; Chalabaev, A.; Raspaud, M. (2011). "Relative age is associated with sport dropout: evidence from youth categories of French basketball: Relative age effect and dropout". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 21 (1): 120–128. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01060.x. PMID 20136758. S2CID 20611526.
  32. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Baker, Joseph; Janning, Christina; Wong, Harmonie; Cobley, Stephen; Schorer, Jörg (2014). "Variations in relative age effects in individual sports: skiing, figure skating and gymnastics". European Journal of Sport Science. 14 (Suppl 1): S183–190. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.671369. ISSN 1536-7290. PMID 24444205. S2CID 205918608.
  33. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Gil, Susana M.; Bidaurrazaga-Letona, Iraia; Larruskain, Jon; Esain, Izaro; Irazusta, Jon (2021). "The relative age effect in young athletes: A countywide analysis of 9-14-year-old participants in all competitive sports". PLOS ONE. 16 (7) e0254687. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1654687G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254687. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8284647. PMID 34270609.
  34. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Musch, Jochen; Grondin, Simon (2001). "Unequal Competition as an Impediment to Personal Development: A Review of the Relative Age Effect in Sport". Developmental Review. 21 (2): 147–167. doi:10.1006/drev.2000.0516. ISSN 0273-2297.
  35. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Stanaway, Kimberly B.; Hines, Terence M. (1995-12-01). "Lack of a Season of Birth Effect among American Athletes". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 81 (3): 952–954. doi:10.2466/pms.1995.81.3.952. ISSN 0031-5125. S2CID 144431104.
  36. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Delorme, N.; Raspaud, M. (2009). "The relative age effect in young French basketball players: a study on the whole population". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 19 (2): 235–242. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00781.x. ISSN 1600-0838. PMID 18298612. S2CID 126598.
  37. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Loffing, Florian; Schorer, Jörg; Cobley, Steve P. (2010-06-01). "Relative Age Effects are a developmental problem in tennis: but not necessarily when you're left-handed!". High Ability Studies. 21 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1080/13598139.2010.488084. ISSN 1359-8139. S2CID 145150287.
  38. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Côté, Jean; Macdonald, Dany J.; Baker, Joseph; Abernethy, Bruce (2006). "When "where" is more important than "when": birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise". Journal of Sports Sciences. 24 (10): 1065–1073. doi:10.1080/02640410500432490. hdl:1974/14413. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17115521. S2CID 12638438.
  39. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sherar, Lauren B.; Baxter-Jones, Adam D. G.; Faulkner, Robert A.; Russell, Keith W. (2007). "Do physical maturity and birth date predict talent in male youth ice hockey players?". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (8): 879–886. doi:10.1080/02640410600908001. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17474041. S2CID 24530414.
  40. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Harter, Susan (1993), Baumeister, Roy F. (ed.), "Causes and Consequences of Low Self-Esteem in Children and Adolescents", Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, The Plenum Series in Social / Clinical Psychology, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 87–116, doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_5, ISBN 978-1-4684-8956-9{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  41. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Heffernan, Colleen J. (1988). "Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Albert Bandura Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986, xiii + 617 pp. Hardback. US$39.50". Behaviour Change. 5 (1): 37–38. doi:10.1017/S0813483900008238. ISSN 0813-4839.
  42. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.García, Miguel Saavedra; Aguilar, Óscar Gutiérrez; Romero, Juan J Fernández; Lastra, David Fernández; Oliveira, Gabriel Eiras (2014-10-01). "Relative age effect in lower categories of international basketball". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 49 (5): 526–535. doi:10.1177/1012690212462832. ISSN 1012-6902. S2CID 145132099.
  43. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Delorme, Nicolas; Boiché, Julie; Raspaud, Michel (1 May 2010). "Relative age and dropout in French male soccer". Journal of Sports Sciences. 28 (7): 717–722. doi:10.1080/02640411003663276. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 20480428. S2CID 6176116.
  44. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Baxter-Jones, Adam D.G. (1995). "Growth and Development of Young Athletes: Should Competition Levels be Age Related?". Sports Medicine. 20 (2): 59–64. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520020-00001. ISSN 0112-1642. PMID 7481282. S2CID 45304762.
  45. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Medic, Nikola; Starkes, Janet L.; Young, Bradley W. (2007). "Examining relative age effects on performance achievement and participation rates in Masters athletes". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (12): 1377–1384. doi:10.1080/02640410601110128. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17786690. S2CID 6530220.
  46. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Baker, Joseph; Deakin, Janice; Horton, Sean; Pearce, G. William (2007). "Maintenance of skilled performance with age: a descriptive examination of professional golfers". Journal of Aging and Physical Activity. 15 (3): 300–317. doi:10.1123/japa.15.3.300. ISSN 1063-8652. PMID 17724396.
  47. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bortz, W. M. (1996). "How fast do we age? Exercise performance over time as a biomarker". The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 51 (5): M223–225. doi:10.1093/gerona/51a.5.m223. ISSN 1079-5006. PMID 8808993.
  48. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Starkes, Janet. "Aging and the retention of sport expertise". International Journal of Sport Psychology.
  49. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Schorer, J.; Cobley, S.; Büsch, D.; Bräutigam, H.; Baker, J. (2009). "Influences of competition level, gender, player nationality, career stage and playing position on relative age effects". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 19 (5): 720–730. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00838.x. ISSN 1600-0838. PMID 18627551. S2CID 1084598.
  50. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Vaeyens, Roel; Philippaerts, Renaat M.; Malina, Robert M. (2005). "The relative age effect in soccer: a match-related perspective". Journal of Sports Sciences. 23 (7): 747–756. doi:10.1080/02640410400022052. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 16195025. S2CID 19513513.
  51. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wattie, Nick; Cobley, Stephen; Macpherson, Alison; Howard, Andrew; Montelpare, William J.; Baker, Joseph (2007). "Injuries in Canadian youth ice hockey: the influence of relative age". Pediatrics. 120 (1): 142–148. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2672. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 17606571. S2CID 24189760.
  52. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Boucher, J. "The novem system: A practical solution to age grouping". Cahper Journal.
  53. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Barnsley, Roger H.; Thompson, A. H. (1988). "Birthdate and success in minor hockey: The key to the NHL". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 20 (2): 167–176. doi:10.1037/h0079927. Retrieved 2021-11-12.
  54. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Verbeek, J.; Lawrence, S.; van der Breggen, J.; Kelly, A.; Jonker, L. (2021). "The average team age method and its potential to reduce relative age effects.". Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport. Routledge. pp. 107–124. doi:10.4324/9781003163572-10. ISBN 978-1-003-16357-2. S2CID 234878601.
  55. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Helsen, Werner F.; Starkes, Janet L.; Van Winckel, Jan (1998). "The influence of relative age on success and dropout in male soccer players". American Journal of Human Biology. 10 (6): 791–798. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1998)10:6<791::AID-AJHB10>3.0.CO;2-1. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 28561412. S2CID 32958835.
  56. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Mann, David (2017). "Age-ordered shirt numbering reduces the selection bias associated with the relative age effect". Journal of Sports Sciences. 35 (8): 784–790. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1189588. hdl:1871.1/8699ca89-7bc5-4be7-b61a-bf8841dc3106. PMID 27238077. S2CID 30301449.
  57. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kelly, Adam L.; Jackson, Daniel T.; Taylor, Josh J.; Jeffreys, Mark A.; Turnnidge, Jennifer (2020). ""Birthday-Banding" as a Strategy to Moderate the Relative Age Effect: A Case Study Into the England Squash Talent Pathway". Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2 573890. doi:10.3389/fspor.2020.573890. ISSN 2624-9367. PMC 7739587. PMID 33345136.
  58. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Romann, M; Cobley, S (2015). "Relative Age Effects in Athletic Sprinting and Corrective Adjustments as a Solution for Their Removal". PLOS ONE. 10 (4) e0122988. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022988R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122988. PMC 4386815. PMID 25844642.
  59. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Reeves, M; Enright, K; Dowling, J; Roberts, S (2018). "Stakeholders' understanding and perceptions of bio-banding in junior-elite football training" (PDF). Soccer & Society. 19: 1166–1182. doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1432384. S2CID 148894870.
  60. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hill, Megan; Spencer, Amy; McGee, Darragh; Scott, Sam; Frame, Malcolm; Cumming, Sean P. (2020-05-18). "The psychology of bio-banding: a Vygotskian perspective". Annals of Human Biology. 47 (4): 328–335. doi:10.1080/03014460.2020.1797163. ISSN 0301-4460. PMID 32674664. S2CID 220607644.
  61. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bradley, Ben; Johnson, David; Hill, Megan; McGee, Darragh; Kana-Ah, Adam; Sharpin, Callum; Sharp, Peter; Kelly, Adam; Cumming, Sean P.; Malina, Robert M. (2019). "Bio-banding in academy football: player's perceptions of a maturity matched tournament". Annals of Human Biology. 46 (5): 400–408. doi:10.1080/03014460.2019.1640284. ISSN 1464-5033. PMID 31288575. S2CID 195871072.
  62. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Romann, Michael; Lüdin, Dennis; Born, Dennis-Peter (2020-05-12). "Bio-banding in junior soccer players: a pilot study". BMC Research Notes. 13 (1): 240. doi:10.1186/s13104-020-05083-5. ISSN 1756-0500. PMC 7216411. PMID 32398110.
  63. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Malina, Robert M.; Cumming, Sean P.; Rogol, Alan D.; Coelho-E-Silva, Manuel J.; Figueiredo, Antonio J.; Konarski, Jan M.; Kozieł, Sławomir M. (2019). "Bio-Banding in Youth Sports: Background, Concept, and Application". Sports Medicine. 49 (11): 1671–1685. doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01166-x. ISSN 1179-2035. PMID 31429034. S2CID 201058305.
  64. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abbott, Will; Williams, Stuart; Brickley, Gary; Smeeton, Nicholas J. (2019-08-14). "Effects of Bio-Banding upon Physical and Technical Performance during Soccer Competition: A Preliminary Analysis". Sports. 7 (8) E193. doi:10.3390/sports7080193. ISSN 2075-4663. PMC 6722793. PMID 31416230.
  65. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Giudicelli, Bruno B.; Luz, Leonardo G. O.; Sogut, Mustafa; Massart, Alain G.; Júnior, Arnaldo C.; Figueiredo, António J. (2020-01-05). "Bio-Banding in Judo: The Mediation Role of Anthropometric Variables on the Maturation Effect". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (1) E361. doi:10.3390/ijerph17010361. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 6981667. PMID 31948074.
  66. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Stănilă, Alexandra Mihaela; Lupşa, Marius Matichescu; Stănilă, Cătălin (2020-09-01). "BIO-BANDING from concept to practice in sports". Timisoara Physical Education and Rehabilitation Journal. 13 (24): 19–24. doi:10.2478/tperj-2020-0003. S2CID 220772237.
  67. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Reeves, Matthew J.; Enright, Kevin J.; Dowling, Jack; Roberts, Simon J. (2018-11-17). "Stakeholders' understanding and perceptions of bio-banding in junior-elite football training" (PDF). Soccer & Society. 19 (8): 1166–1182. doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1432384. ISSN 1466-0970. S2CID 148894870.
  68. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cumming, Sean P.; Lloyd, Rhodri S.; Oliver, Jon L.; Eisenmann, Joey C.; Malina, Robert M. (2017). "Bio-banding in Sport: Applications to Competition, Talent Identification, and Strength and Conditioning of Youth Athletes". Strength & Conditioning Journal. 39 (2): 34–47. doi:10.1519/SSC.0000000000000281. hdl:10369/8460. ISSN 1524-1602.
  69. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Fukunaga, Hisanori; Taguri, Masataka; Morita, Satoshi (2013-10-01). "Relative age effect on Nobel laureates in the UK". JRSM Short Reports. 4 (10) 2042533313492514. doi:10.1177/2042533313492514. ISSN 2042-5333. PMC 3831864. PMID 24319580.
  70. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Jeronimus, Bertus F; Stavrakakis, Nikolaos; Veenstra, René; Oldehinkel, Albertine J (2015). "Relative Age Effects in Dutch Adolescents: Concurrent and Prospective Analyses". PLOS ONE. 10 (6) e0128856. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1028856J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128856. PMC 4468064. PMID 26076384.
  71. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cobley, Stephen; McKenna, Jim; Baker, Joeseph; Wattie, Nick (May 2009). "How pervasive are relative age effects in secondary school education?". Journal of Educational Psychology. 101 (2): 520–528. doi:10.1037/a0013845. Retrieved 2021-11-15.
  72. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bedard, K; Dhuey, E (2006). "The Persistence of Early Childhood Maturity: International Evidence of Long-Run Age Effects". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 121 (4): 1437–72. doi:10.1093/qje/121.4.1437. JSTOR 25098831.
  73. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ponzo, Michela; Scoppa, Vincenzo (2014). "The long-lasting effects of school entry age: Evidence from Italian students". Journal of Policy Modeling. 36 (3): 578–99. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2014.04.001.
  74. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Shearer, E. (1967-12-01). "The Effect of Date of Birth on Teachers' Assessments of Children". Educational Research. 10 (1): 51–56. doi:10.1080/0013188670100104. ISSN 0013-1881.
  75. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cunha, Flavio; Heckman, James J.; Lochner, Lance; Masterov, Dimitriy V. (2006-01-01), Hanushek, E.; Welch, F. (eds.), Chapter 12 Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation, Handbook of the Economics of Education, vol. 1, Elsevier, pp. 697–812, doi:10.1016/S1574-0692(06)01012-9, ISBN 978-0-444-51399-1, retrieved 2021-11-13
  76. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Dhuey, Elizabeth; Lipscomb, Stephen (2008). "What makes a leader? Relative age and high school leadership". Economics of Education Review. 27 (2): 173–83. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.394.8881. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2006.08.005.
  77. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hauck, Anne Logan; Finch, A. J. (1993). "The effect of relative age on achievement in middle school". Psychology in the Schools. 30 (1): 74–79. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(199301)30:1<74::AID-PITS2310300112>3.0.CO;2-E. ISSN 1520-6807.
  78. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Russell, R. J. H.; Startup, M. J. (1986-01-01). "Month of birth and academic achievement". Personality and Individual Differences. 7 (6): 839–846. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(86)90082-6. ISSN 0191-8869.
  79. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Du, Qianqian; Gao, Huasheng; Levi, Maurice D (2012). "The relative-age effect and career success: Evidence from corporate CEOs". Economics Letters. 117 (3): 660–2. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2012.08.017.
  80. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Muller, Daniel; Page, Lionel (2016). "Born leaders: Political selection and the relative age effect in the US Congress". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society). 179 (3): 809–29. doi:10.1111/rssa.12154. S2CID 124379974.
  81. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Gender Specific Relative Age Effects in Politics and Football" (PDF). Doria.fi. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  82. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Morrow, R. L; Garland, E. J; Wright, J. M; MacLure, M; Taylor, S; Dormuth, C. R (2012). "Influence of relative age on diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 184 (7): 755–62. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111619. PMC 3328520. PMID 22392937.
  83. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Davies, G; Welham, J; Chant, D; Torrey, E. F; McGrath, J (2003). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Northern Hemisphere Season of Birth Studies in Schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 29 (3): 587–93. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007030. PMID 14609251.
  84. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Season of Birth of Students Receiving Special Education Services Under a Diagnosis of Emotional and Behavioral Disorder" (PDF). Eduratio.be. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  85. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Landersø, Rasmus; Nielsen, Helena Skyt; Simonsen, Marianne (2017). "School Starting Age and the Crime-age Profile" (PDF). The Economic Journal. 127 (602): 1096–118. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12325. S2CID 155576753. SSRN 2984362.
  86. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hillman, R. W.; Conway, H. C. (1972). "Season of birth and relative body weight". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 25 (3): 279–281. doi:10.1093/ajcn/25.3.279. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 5011910.
  87. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Phillips, D. I.; Young, J. B. (2000). "Birth weight, climate at birth and the risk of obesity in adult life". International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. 24 (3): 281–287. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801125. PMID 10757620. S2CID 24898098.
  88. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wattie, Nick; Ardern, Chris I.; Baker, Joseph (2008). "Season of birth and prevalence of overweight and obesity in Canada". Early Human Development. 84 (8): 539–547. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2007.12.010. ISSN 0378-3782. PMID 18280062.
  89. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Diamond, Grace H. (1983-03-01). "The Birthdate Effect: A Maturational Effect?". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 16 (3): 161–164. doi:10.1177/002221948301600306. ISSN 0022-2194. PMID 6864105. S2CID 28321784.
  90. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Torrey, E. F.; Miller, J.; Rawlings, R.; Yolken, R. H. (1997-11-07). "Seasonality of births in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a review of the literature". Schizophrenia Research. 28 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(97)00092-3. ISSN 0920-9964. PMID 9428062. S2CID 54259124.
  91. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Levitan, Robert D.; Masellis, Mario; Lam, Raymond W.; Kaplan, Allan S.; Davis, Caroline; Tharmalingam, Subi; Mackenzie, Bronwyn; Basile, Vincenzo S.; Kennedy, James L. (2006). "A birth-season/DRD4 gene interaction predicts weight gain and obesity in women with seasonal affective disorder: A seasonal thrifty phenotype hypothesis". Neuropsychopharmacology. 31 (11): 2498–2503. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301121. ISSN 0893-133X. PMID 16760922. S2CID 35504875.

Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Authority control/config' not found.

Retrieved from "https://cosmopedia.co/index.php?title=Relative_age_effect&oldid=11591452"