Superoxide

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Superoxide
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Lewis structure of superoxide. The six outer-shell electrons of each oxygen atom are shown in black; one electron pair is shared (middle); the unpaired electron is shown in the upper-left; and the additional electron conferring a negative charge is shown in red.
Names
IUPAC name
Superoxide
Systematic IUPAC name
Dioxidan-2-idylide
Other names
Hyperoxide, Dioxide(1−)
Identifiers
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3D model (JSmol)
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EC Number Page Template:Plainlist/styles.css has no content.
487
KEGG Page Template:Plainlist/styles.css has no content.
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  • InChI=1S/O2/c1-2/q-1
    Key: MXDZWXWHPVATGF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • O=[O-]
Properties
Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2
Molar mass 31.998 g·mol−1
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Template:Chembox Footer/trackingTemplate:Short description

In chemistry, a superoxide is a compound that contains the superoxide ion, which has the chemical formula Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2.[1] The systematic name of the anion is dioxide(1−). The reactive oxygen ion superoxide is particularly important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O2, which occurs widely in nature.[2] Molecular oxygen (dioxygen) is a diradical containing two unpaired electrons, and superoxide results from the addition of an electron which fills one of the two degenerate molecular orbitals, leaving a charged ionic species with a single unpaired electron and a net negative charge of −1. Both dioxygen and the superoxide anion are free radicals that exhibit paramagnetism.[3] Superoxide was historically also known as "hyperoxide".[4]

Salts

Superoxide forms salts with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. The salts sodium superoxide (Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.NaO2), potassium superoxide (Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.KO2), rubidium superoxide (Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.RbO2) and caesium superoxide (Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.CsO2) are prepared by the reaction of Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O2 with the respective alkali metal.[5][6]

The alkali salts of Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2 are orange-yellow in color and quite stable, if kept dry. In water, the dissolved Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2 disproportionates extremely rapidly (written here for a basic solution):[7]

Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.4 O−2 + 2 H2O → 3 O2 + 4 OH−

This reaction (with moisture and carbon dioxide in exhaled air) underlies the use of potassium superoxide as an oxygen source in chemical oxygen generators, as on the Space Shuttle and submarines, and in firefighters' oxygen tanks.

More generally, the superoxide anion, Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2, is a weak Brønsted base. Its protonated form, hydroperoxyl (Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.HO2), has pKa around 4.8, and superoxide anion predominates at neutral pH:[8][9]

Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2 + H2O ⇌ HO2 + OH−

Hydroperoxyl is a strong oxidant, but superoxide is a strong nucleophile and reductant. Disproportionation to oxygen and peroxide occurs whenever the two coexist.[10]

Potassium superoxide is soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide (facilitated by crown ethers) and is stable as long as protons are not available. Superoxide can also be generated in aprotic solvents by cyclic voltammetry.

Superoxide salts also decompose in the solid state, but this process requires heating:

Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.2 NaO2 → Na2O2 + O2

Biology

Superoxide is common in biology, reflecting the pervasiveness of O2 and its ease of reduction. Superoxide is implicated in a number of biological processes, some with negative connotations, and some with beneficial effects.[11]

Like hydroperoxyl, superoxide is classified as reactive oxygen species.[3] It is generated by the immune system to kill invading microorganisms. In phagocytes, superoxide is produced in large quantities by the enzyme NADPH oxidase for use in oxygen-dependent killing mechanisms of invading pathogens. Mutations in the gene coding for the NADPH oxidase cause an immunodeficiency syndrome called chronic granulomatous disease, characterized by extreme susceptibility to infection, especially catalase-positive organisms. In turn, micro-organisms genetically engineered to lack the superoxide-scavenging enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) lose virulence. Superoxide is also deleterious when produced as a byproduct of mitochondrial respiration (most notably by Complex I and Complex III), as well as several other enzymes, for example xanthine oxidase,[12] which can catalyze the transfer of electrons directly to molecular oxygen under strongly reducing conditions. Superoxide has been proposed to mediate long-distance electron transport between cytochrome c and Complex III through the aqueous solution, which suggests a role for mitochondrial regulation of reactive oxygen species.[13]

Because superoxide is toxic at high concentrations, nearly all aerobic organisms express SOD. SOD efficiently catalyzes the disproportionation of superoxide:

Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.2 HO2 → O2 + H2O2

Other proteins that can be both oxidized and reduced by superoxide (such as hemoglobin) have weak SOD-like activity. Genetic inactivation ("knockout") of SOD produces deleterious phenotypes in organisms ranging from bacteria to mice and have provided important clues as to the mechanisms of toxicity of superoxide in vivo.

Yeast lacking both mitochondrial and cytosolic SOD grow very poorly in air, but quite well under anaerobic conditions. Absence of cytosolic SOD causes a dramatic increase in mutagenesis and genomic instability. Mice lacking mitochondrial SOD (MnSOD) die around 21 days after birth due to neurodegeneration, cardiomyopathy, and lactic acidosis.[12] Mice lacking cytosolic SOD (CuZnSOD) are viable but suffer from multiple pathologies, including reduced lifespan, liver cancer, muscle atrophy, cataracts, thymic involution, haemolytic anemia, and a very rapid age-dependent decline in female fertility.[12]

Superoxide may contribute to the pathogenesis of many diseases (the evidence is particularly strong for radiation poisoning and hyperoxic injury), and perhaps also to aging via the oxidative damage that it inflicts on cells. While the action of superoxide in the pathogenesis of some conditions is strong (for instance, mice and rats overexpressing CuZnSOD or MnSOD are more resistant to strokes and heart attacks), the role of superoxide in aging must be regarded as unproven, for now. In model organisms (yeast, the fruit fly Drosophila, and mice), genetically knocking out CuZnSOD shortens lifespan and accelerates certain features of aging: (cataracts, muscle atrophy, macular degeneration, and thymic involution). But the converse, increasing the levels of CuZnSOD, does not seem to consistently increase lifespan (except perhaps in Drosophila).[12] The most widely accepted view is that oxidative damage (resulting from multiple causes, including superoxide) is but one of several factors limiting lifespan.

The binding of Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O2 by reduced (Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.Fe2+) heme proteins involves formation of Fe(III) superoxide complex.[14]

Assay in biological systems

The assay of superoxide in biological systems is complicated by its short half-life.[15] One approach that has been used in quantitative assays converts superoxide to hydrogen peroxide, which is relatively stable. Hydrogen peroxide is then assayed by a fluorimetric method.[15] As a free radical, superoxide has a strong EPR signal, and it is possible to detect superoxide directly using this method. For practical purposes, this can be achieved only in vitro under non-physiological conditions, such as high pH (which slows the spontaneous dismutation) with the enzyme xanthine oxidase. Researchers have developed a series of tool compounds termed "spin traps" that can react with superoxide, forming a meta-stable radical (half-life 1–15 minutes), which can be more readily detected by EPR. Superoxide spin-trapping was initially carried out with DMPO, but phosphorus derivatives with improved half-lives, such as DEPPMPO and DIPPMPO, have become more widely used.[citation needed]

Bonding and structure

Superoxides are compounds in which the oxidation number of oxygen is −Page Template:Fraction/styles.css has no content.1⁄2. Whereas molecular oxygen (dioxygen) is a diradical containing two unpaired electrons, the addition of a second electron fills one of its two degenerate molecular orbitals, leaving a charged ionic species with single unpaired electron and a net negative charge of −1. Both dioxygen and the superoxide anion are free radicals that exhibit paramagnetism.

The derivatives of dioxygen have characteristic O–O distances that correlate with the order of the O–O bond.

Dioxygen compound name O–O distance (Å) O–O bond order
Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O+2 dioxygenyl cation 1.12 2.5
Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O2 dioxygen 1.21 2
Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O−2 superoxide 1.28 1.5[16]
Page Module:Chem2/styles.css has no content.O2−2 peroxide 1.49 1

See also

References

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  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hayyan, M.; Hashim, M.A.; Al Nashef, I.M. (2016). "Superoxide Ion: Generation and Chemical Implications". Chem. Rev. 116 (5): 3029–3085. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00407. PMID 26875845.
  2. ^ Sawyer, D. T. Superoxide Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, Script error: No such module "CS1 identifiers".
  3. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Valko, M.; Leibfritz, D.; Moncol, J.; Cronin, MTD.; Mazur, M.; Telser, J. (August 2007). "Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease". International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology. 39 (1): 44–84. doi:10.1016/j.biocel.2006.07.001. PMID 16978905.
  4. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hayyan, Maan; Hashim, Mohd Ali; Alnashef, Inas M. (2016). "Superoxide Ion: Generation and Chemical Implications". Chemical Reviews. 116 (5): 3029–3085. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00407. PMID 26875845.
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Holleman, A.F. (2001). Wiberg, Nils (ed.). Inorganic chemistry (1st English ed.). San Diego, CA & Berlin: Academic Press, W. de Gruyter. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
  6. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Vernon Ballou, E.; C. Wood, Peter; A. Spitze, LeRoy; Wydeven, Theodore (1 July 1977). "The Preparation of Calcium Superoxide from Calcium Peroxide Diperoxyhydrate". Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 16 (2): 180–186. doi:10.1021/i360062a015.
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey (1988), Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, p. 461, ISBN 0-471-84997-9
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bielski, Benon H. J.; Cabelli, Diane E.; Arudi, Ravindra L.; Ross, Alberta B. (1985). "Reactivity of HO2/O2− Radicals in Aqueous Solution". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data. 14 (4): 1041–1091. Bibcode:1985JPCRD..14.1041B. doi:10.1063/1.555739.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."HO•
    2    : the forgotten radical Abstract"     (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-08.
  10. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sawyer, Donald T.; Chiericato, Giaico; Angelis, Charles T.; Nanni, Edward J.; Tsuchiya, Tohru (1 Sep 1982). "Effects of media and electrode materials on the electrochemical reduction of dioxygen". Analytical Chemistry. 54 (11). American Chemical Society: 1720–1724. doi:10.1021/ac00248a014.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Yang, Wen; Hekimi, Siegfried (2010). "A Mitochondrial Superoxide Signal Triggers Increased Longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans". PLOS Biology. 8 (12) e1000556. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000556. PMC 2998438. PMID 21151885.
  12. ^ a b c d Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Muller, F. L.; Lustgarten, M. S.; Jang, Y.; Richardson <first4=A.; Van Remmen, H. (2007). "Trends in oxidative aging theories". Free Radic. Biol. Med. 43 (4): 477–503. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.034. PMID 17640558.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lagunas, Anna; Gomila, Alexandre M. J.; Nin-Hill, Alba; Guerra-Castellano, Alejandra; Pérez-Mejías, Gonzalo; Samitier, Josep; Rovira, Carme; la Rosa, Miguel A. De; Díaz-Moreno, Irene; Gorostiza, Pau. "Long-Distance Charge Transport between Cytochrome c and Complex III is Mediated by Protons and Reactive Oxygen Species". Small. n/a (n/a) e01286. doi:10.1002/smll.202501286. ISSN 1613-6829. PMC 12548003.
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Yee, Gereon M.; Tolman, William B. (2015). "Chapter 5, Section 2.2.2 Fe(III)-Superoxo Intermediates". In Kroneck, Peter M.H.; Sosa Torres, Martha E. (eds.). Sustaining Life on Planet Earth: Metalloenzymes Mastering Dioxygen and Other Chewy Gases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 15. Springer. pp. 141–144. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-12415-5_5. ISBN 978-3-319-12414-8. PMID 25707468.
  15. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Rapoport, R.; Hanukoglu, I.; Sklan, D. (May 1994). "A fluorimetric assay for hydrogen peroxide, suitable for NAD(P)H-dependent superoxide generating redox systems". Anal Biochem. 218 (2): 309–13. doi:10.1006/abio.1994.1183. PMID 8074285. S2CID 40487242.
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Abrahams, S. C.; Kalnajs, J. (1955). "The Crystal Structure of α-Potassium Superoxide". Acta Crystallographica. 8 (8): 503–506. Bibcode:1955AcCry...8..503A. doi:10.1107/S0365110X55001540.

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