Wa State

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Wa State
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Meung Vax (Wa)
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Anthem: Aux muih Meung Vax (Wa)
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"I love Wa State"
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Claimed territory (green) within Myanmar (dark grey)
StatusTemplate:Infobox country/status text
CapitalPangkham
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Largest cityMong Pawk
Official languagesStandard Chinese, Wa, Burmese
Recognised national languagesWa
Recognised regional languagesPage Template:Hlist/styles.css has no content.
Working languageStandard Chinese
Ethnic groups
Wa, Hui (Panthay), Han Chinese, Dai, Lahu, Akha, and others
GovernmentMaoist communist state[13]
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History
Template:Infobox country/multirow
Area
• Total
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Population
• Estimate
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  • ~758,000 (total)
    • 558,000 (northern area)[15]
    • 200,000 (southern area)[16]
• Density
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CurrencyRenminbi (north)
Thai baht (south)
Time zoneUTC+06:30 (MMT)
Calling code+86 (0)879 (north)
+66 (0)53 (south)

Wa State[n 1] is a de facto independent state[5][6][7][13] and de jure self-governing region[19][20] in Myanmar that has its own political system, administrative divisions and army.[5][6][7] While the Wa State government recognises Myanmar's sovereignty over all of its territory,[1][2][3][4] this does not include allegiance to any specific government.[21] The 2008 Constitution of Myanmar officially recognises the northern part of Wa State as the Wa Self-Administered Division of Shan State.[22] It is run as a de facto communist state ruled by the United Wa State Party (UWSP),[13] which split from the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) in 1989. Wa State is divided into three counties, two special districts, and one economic development zone. The administrative capital is Pangkham, formerly known as Pangsang. The name Wa is derived from the Wa ethnic group, who speak an Austroasiatic language.

History

For a long time,[timeframe?] headman tribes were dispersed around the Wa mountainous area, with no unified governance and gradually the region became separated from the tribal military control of the Dai people. British rule in Burma did not administer the Wa States[23] and the border with China was left undefined.[24]

From the late 1940s, during the Chinese Civil War, remnants of the Chinese National Revolutionary Army retreated to territory within Burma as the communists took over mainland China. Within the mountain region Kuomintang forces of the Eighth Army 237 division and 26th Army 93 division held their position for two decades in preparation for a counterattack towards mainland China. Under pressure from the United Nations, the counterattack was cancelled and the army was recalled to northern Thailand and later back to Taiwan; however, some troops decided to remain within Burma. East of the Salween river, indigenous tribal guerrilla groups exercised control with the support of the Communist Party of Burma.

During the 1960s, the Communist Party of Burma lost its base of operations within central Burma, and with the assistance of the Chinese communists, expanded within the border regions in the northeast. Many intellectual youths from China joined the Communist Party of Burma, and these forces also absorbed many local guerrillas.[25] The Burmese communists gained control over Pangkham, which became their base of operations.

At the end of the 1980s, the ethnic minorities of northeast Burma became politically separated from the Communist Party of Burma. On 17 April 1989, Bao Youxiang's armed forces announced their separation from the Communist Party of Burma, and formed the United Myanmar Ethnicities Party, which later became the United Wa State Party. On 18 May, the United Wa State Army signed a ceasefire agreement with the State Law and Order Restoration Council, which replaced Ne Win's military regime following the 8888 Uprising.[26] After the ceasefire, the Myanmar government began to call the region "Shan State Special Region No. 2 (Wa Region)"[27]Template:Rp (Parauk: Script error: No such module "Lang".;[28] Template:Zh; Template:Langx).

In 1990s, Wa State obtained the Southern area by force. From 1999 to 2002, 80,000 former opium farmers from the northern area of Wa State were forcefully resettled into the more fertile south for food production, improving food security and laying the groundwork for a ban on drug production in Wa State. Some groups report that thousands died as a result of resettlement.[29]

Tensions between the central government and Wa State were heightened in 2009.[30] During this time, peace initiative proposals by Wa State were rejected by the Myanmar government.[31] The government warned on 27 April 2010 that the WHP program could push Myanmar and Wa State into further conflict.[32][<span title="Script error: No such module "decodeEncode".">clarification needed]

In 2012, Wa State began a major road construction program to link all townships with asphalt roads.[27]Template:Rp By 2014, asphalt roads ran through the northern townships of Wa State and connected the Wa townships of Kunma, Nam Tit, and Mengmao to the Chinese towns of Cangyuan and Ximeng.[27]Template:Rp

After the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état the Wa began to oppose the Myanmar government more directly, shifting away from their strategy of "forward defense" of supporting smaller anti-government forces militarily which was supposed to keep the Tatmadaw from violating ceasefires, with the goal of extending their political and military influence towards Central Myanmar.[33]

When fighting in northern Shan State escalated in late October and early November in 2023, Wa State took a neutral position urging on 1 Nov for a ceasefire. The UWSP has again stated that they would retaliate against any military action against Wa.[34][35]

Tensions between Wa State and Thailand increased in November 2024 over the presence of UWSA bases allegedly encroaching on Thai territory.[36]

Politics, society and law

File:佤邦基本法.jpg
Wa State Basic Law

Wa State is divided into northern and southern regions which are separated from one another, with the 13,000 km2 (5,000 sq mi) southern region bordering Thailand and consisting of 200,000 people.[37] The total area of the region controlled by Wa State is approximately 27,000 kilometers.[27]Template:Rp The political leaders of Wa State are mostly ethnic Wa people.

The working language of the Wa State government is Mandarin Chinese.[38][39][40] Southwest Mandarin and Wa are widely spoken by the population, with the language of education being Standard Chinese. Television broadcasts within Wa State are broadcast in both Mandarin and Wa. Commodities within Wa State are brought over from China, and the renminbi is commonly used for exchanges. China Mobile has cellular coverage over some parts of Wa State.[37]

Government

The Wa State government emulates many political features of the government of the People's Republic of China, having a central party known as the United Wa State Party, which also has a Central Committee and a Politburo. Wa State also has a Wa People's Congress and a Wa People's Political Consultative Conference, respectively mimicking the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. Before the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, whilst Wa State was highly autonomous from the control of the central government in Naypyidaw,[41][42] their relationship was based on peaceful coexistence and Wa State recognised the sovereignty of the central government over all of Myanmar.[37]

The legal system in Wa State is based on the civil law system, with reference to the laws of China. As of at least 2015, Wa State imposes the death penalty (which is abolished at the national level in Myanmar) for armed assault, rape, murder, and child abuse.[27]Template:Rp After being sentenced to death, prisoners are sent directly to the execution ground.[43]

Labour camps exist in Wa State and relatives of those who are imprisoned or conscripted are often taken hostage by the state. The state is governed by a network of Maoist insurgents, traditional leaders such as headmen, businessmen, and traders, without democratic elections or the rule of law.[44]

Most people do not have Chinese or Myanmar ID cards, but Wa State ID cards are often recognised in those countries. It is easy for citizens to enter them if they avoid the official border crossings.[44]

Demographics

The most-practiced religion, outnumbering Islam, Buddhism and folk religions, is Christianity, even though there are frequent crackdowns on it conducted by the Maoist government. An example for this is a campaign against churches built after 1992 in September 2018.[45][46][47]

There used to be up to 100,000 Chinese nationals residing in Wa State, many of them engaging in business. In 2021, the Chinese government ordered them to return to their homeland to combat online fraud allegedly committed by many of them.[48] The Chinese exodus has had a negative impact on the Wa economy.[49]

Administrative divisions

Wa State is divided into districts (Template:Langx; Template:Langx; Template:Langx), special townships (Template:Langx; Template:Langx; Template:Langx) and an administrative affairs committee. Each district is further divided into townships (Template:Langx; Template:Langx; Template:Langx).

Below these are village tract-level administrations: village tracts (Template:Langx; Template:Langx; Template:Langx) and streets (Template:Langx; Template:Langx).

Level District-level Township-level Village tract Village
Division
Type 		Special Township (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".) Street (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".)
Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".) 		Group (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".)
Village (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".)
District (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".) Township (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".)
Administrative Affairs Committee (Script error: No such module "Lang". / Script error: No such module "Lang".)

In the table above, names in apostrophes are in Wa/Mandarin order. Streets are metaphorical urban-type division name analogical to subdistricts of China and should not be understood literally. They are further subdivided into groups. Villages are rural counterparts of groups and are below townships.

In general, the Wa names of divisions follow the Romance naming order. For example, Veng Yaong Leen means Yaong Leen Township and is a veng (township) instead of a Script error: No such module "Lang". (natural settlement).

In the sections below, names in bold indicate district seats. Names with "quotation marks" are pinyin transcriptions of Mandarin while names in italics are Burmese transcriptions of Mandarin. Although Mandarin is one of the four working languages of Wa State, some Mandarin administrative names are non-canonical. For example, Script error: No such module "Lang". and Script error: No such module "Lang". are two different transcriptions of the same official Wa or Dai name of Pang Yang Township.

Northern area

File:Local bazaar inside of Mongkhet Myoma Market in one early morning of December 2016.jpg
Market in Mong Khet Township

Wa State's northern area is divided into four counties and one special township. Each district is further divided into townships; there are 25 townships in total.

Districts
  • Ho Pang District [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".):
    1. Ho Pang Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., district seat)
    2. Pang Long Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    3. Nang Teung Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    4. Nawi Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Mongmao District [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".):
    5. Kaung Ming Sang Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., district seat)
    6. Panwai Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    7. Taoh Mie Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    8. Yaong Lin Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    9. Long Tan Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    10. Ai Chun Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    11. Yingpan Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    12. Man Ton Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    13. Ling Haw Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    14. Klawngpa Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Monglin District [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".):
    15. Man Shiang Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    16. Nawng Khiet Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., district seat)
    17. Paleen Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    18. Nakao Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    19. Pang Yang Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Mong Pawk District [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".):
    20. Nam Phai Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    21. Mong Pawk Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., district seat)
    22. Mong Ning Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    23. Mong Ka Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    24. Hotao Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    25. Meng Phing Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
Special township
  • Pangkham Special Township (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".):
    Guanghong Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    Na Lawt Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    Nan Phat Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    Tawng Aw Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    Yaong Ting Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
    Man Mao Village tract (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)

Wa State overlaps with eight de jure townships designated by the Burmese government. The geographic relationship between townships (second level) and special townships (first level) of Wa State and townships of Shan State are listed below:

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Hopang Township of Shan State
  • Ho Pang Township
  • Nang Teung Township
  • Nawi Township
  • Pang Long Township
Mongmao Township of Shan State
  • Kaung Ming Sang Township
  • Man Ton Township
  • Ling Haw Township
Pangwaun Township of Shan State
  • Ai Chun Township (Cawng Miang)
  • Long Tan Township
  • Panwai Township
  • Taoh Mie Township (Kunma)
  • Wangleng Township (Yaong Leen)
Namphan Township of Shan State
  • Yingpan Township (Kawn Mau)
  • Paleen Township
Pangsang Township of Shan State
  • Klawngpa Township
  • Man Shiang Township
  • Nakao Township
  • Nawng Khiet Township
  • Pangkham Special Township
Matman Township of Shan State
  • Pang Yang Township
Mong Yang Township of Shan State
  • Hotao Township
  • Meng Phing Township
  • Mong Ka Township
  • Mong Pawk Township
  • Nam Phai Township
Mong Khet Township of Shan State
  • Mong Ngen Township (Mong Ning)

On 15 January 2024, Hopang and Pan Lon are officially transferred to Wa State by Myanmar's government.[18][50]

Southern area

Wa State's southern area is administered by the Fourth Theater Command as the "171st military region" and enjoys a high degree of local autonomy. For example, the UWSP allowed it to implement its own COVID-19 policies.[51] The region is not part of traditional Wa territory, but was granted in 1989 by the then-ruling Burmese military junta for the UWSA's cooperation in their efforts against drug warlord Khun Sa.[52] These territories were originally inhabited by the Austroasiatic Tai Loi peoples, but now include significant Lahu and Shan communities, as well as Wa settlers.

The Southern area is administrated by the Southern Administrative Affairs Committee (Template:Langx, Template:Langx). The area can further divided into 6 townships:

  • Wan Hoong Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., area seat)
  • Hui Aw Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Yaong Khrao Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Yaong Pang Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Meung Cawd Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)
  • Yaong Moeg Township [zh] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".)

Treatment of original inhabitants

In recent years tens of thousands of people (according to the Lahu National Development Organization claims 125,933 from 1999 to 2001 alone) have resettled from northern Wa State and central Shan State to the southern area, often due to pressure by the Wa government. These actions were intended to strengthen the Wa government's position there, especially the Mong Yawn valley which is surrounded by mountains on all sides is a strategically important location.[29] Wa people were also relocated from villages on mountain peaks to the surrounding valleys, officially to offer the residents an alternative to the cultivation of opium. After the resettlement, the Wa government allowed ethnic Wa settlers to grow opium for three more years and sell it freely. Serious human rights violations were reported during the resettlement and many people have died, around 10,000 alone during the rains of 2000 since the Wa settlers were not accustomed to tropical diseases like malaria in the warmer southern area.[53][29]

The original inhabitants of the area have been discriminated against by the settlers; their belongings were seized by them without compensation. Many abuses occur, including enslaving of the ones who complain about the Wa government. They have to work in the fields with chained-up legs. When a minority person cannot give enough money to the rulers, they can sell children seven years or older as soldiers to the United Wa State Army. Due to these harsh living conditions, many had no other choice but to leave their hometowns.[29]

Geography and economy

File:Wa state.png
Map of Wa State
File:Myanmar civil war.svg
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  Areas controlled by Wa State amid the Myanmar civil war (2021–present)

The region is mainly mountainous, with deep valleys. The lowest points are approximately 600 metres (2,000 ft) above sea level, with the highest mountains over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).[citation needed] Initially Wa State was heavily reliant on opium production.[54] With Chinese assistance, there has been a move towards growing rubber and tea plantations.[55] Wa State cultivates 220,000 acres of rubber.[56] Due to the resettlement of residents from mountainous areas to fertile valleys,[57] there is also cultivation of wet rice, corn and vegetables. Dozens died during the resettlement due to disease and road accidents.[56] One of the main income sources of Wa State is the mining of resources like tin, zinc, lead and smaller amounts of gold.[58] The proven tin ore reserves of Wa State amount to more than 50 million tons, currently 95% of the tin mine production of Myanmar comes from there, around one sixth of the world production.[59][60]

Additionally, there is also a thriving industry around sectors like prostitution and gambling in the capital Pangkham that are related to tourism from China which was thriving before the COVID-19 pandemic.[61] The region was able to vaccinate nearly all of its population against the virus by July 2021, one of the earliest dates in the world.[62] In general, the state of development of Wa State is considerably higher than in the government-controlled areas of Myanmar, which is especially true for its capital.[61][63] Wa State is economically dependent on China, which supports it financially and provides military and civilian advisors and weapons.[64][65] It shares 82 miles (133 km) of frontier with China.[66]

The Myanmar kyat is not legal tender anywhere in the Wa State. In the north, the Chinese yuan is legal tender, whilst the baht is legal tender in the south.[67]

Illicit drug trade

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The United Wa State Army (UWSA) is among the largest narcotics trafficking organizations in Southeast Asia.[68]

The UWSA cultivated vast areas of land for the opium poppy, which was later refined to heroin. Methamphetamine trafficking was also important to the economy of Wa State.[56] The money from the opium was primarily used for purchasing weapons which continues to be the case to some extent. At the same time, while opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 metric tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022[69] With that said, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's February 1 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia.[70]

In August 1990, government officials began drafting a plan to end drug production and trafficking in Wa State.[71] According to an interview with Wa officials in 1994, Bao Youyi (Tax Kuad Rang; also known as Bao Youyu) became wanted by the Chinese police for his involvement in drug trafficking. As a result, Bao Youxiang and Zhao Nyi-Lai went to Cangyuan Va Autonomous County of China and signed the Cangyuan Agreement with local officials, which stated that, "No drugs will go into the international society (from Wa State); no drugs will go into China (from Wa State); no drugs will go into Burmese government-controlled areas (from Wa State)."[72] However, the agreement did not mention whether or not Wa State could sell drugs to insurgent groups.

In 1997, the United Wa State Party officially proclaimed that Wa State would be drug-free by the end of 2005.[71] In 2005, Wa State authorities banned opium, and thereafter launched yearly drug crackdown campaigns.[27]Template:Rp With the help of the United Nations (which began opium-substitution programs in 1998)[27]Template:Rp and the Chinese government, many opium farmers in Wa State shifted to the production of rubber and tea. However, some poppy farmers continued to cultivate the flower outside of Wa State.[73] Anti-drug strategies involved opium substitution programs for farmers, seeking alternative revenue sources in the area, roadbuilding to improve access to the hills, strict enforcement, and a population resettlement program.[27]Template:Rp Between 1999 and 2006, the United Wa State Army began both voluntary resettlement and forced resettlement of between 50,000 and 100,000 villagers from the northern Wa State territory to the non-contiguous southern Wa State territory.[27]Template:Rp Malaria and travel-related deaths were significant among the relocated population.[27]Template:Rp

Although opium cultivation in Myanmar declined from 1997 to 2006 on the whole, the opium ban in Wa State eventually led to increased production elsewhere in Myanmar as opium producers sought to benefit from rising opium prices following the ban.[27]Template:Rp From 2006 to 2012, overall opium cultivation in Myanmar doubled as production shifted to non-Wa State areas.[27]Template:Rp

This population resettlement strategy relieved population pressures in the north Wa State hills and increased opportunities for the cultivation of rubber as an alternative cash crop to opium.[27]Template:Rp However, international commodity prices for rubber decreased radically by December 2012, fell to a low in November 2015, and remained low from 2015 to 2018.[27]Template:Rp Low rubber prices severely hampered Wa State's legitimate revenue and the income of rural people.[27]Template:Rp

A BBC presentation aired on 19 November 2016 showed the burning of methamphetamine, as well as a thriving trade in illegal animal parts.[74]

The production of crystal meth of high quality as well as heroin is still thriving and worth billions of dollars as of 2021. Cheaper ya ba tablets are made by neighboring rebel groups which depend on the Wa for raw materials – namely precursor chemicals sourced from the chemical industry in China and chemical industry in India which enter Myanmar directly or by transit through the Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia) and specifically Lao PDR via Viet Nam and Thailand.[33][75] The regional synthetic drug production and trafficking industry, in which Wa State plays an important role, has become a major source of illegal drugs now exported across the region and beyond.[76][77][78][79]

See also

Notes

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  1. ^

References

Citations

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  1. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Gray, Denis (12 August 2022). "From headhunting to weaponized drones: Myanmar's Wa carve own path". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 10 December 2024. Bertil Lintner, a Swedish author who is a leading authority on Myanmar, said Wa leaders have made no new political demands since the military seized control in Naypyitaw, such as a push for formal independence. An informal peace agreement between the Wa and the central government has lasted since 1989, giving the Wa self-government in return for recognition of Myanmar sovereignty.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  2. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Paliwal, Avinash (24 January 2024). "Could Myanmar Come Apart?". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 10 December 2024. Though the state is nominally part of Myanmar, the Wa have their own political structures...{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  3. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."UWSA Leader Vows to Continue Armed for Wa Autonomy". Burma News International. 18 April 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2024. "Wa State is a part of the Union of Burma and cannot be cut out of the union. We won't demand an independent Wa state or ask for secession."
  4. ^ a b 13 October 2011, 缅甸佤邦竟然是一个山寨版的中国 Script error: No such module "webarchive"., 军情观察
  5. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kumbun, Joe (23 April 2019). "Protected by China, Wa Is Now a de Facto Independent State". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 29 November 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  6. ^ a b c 29 December 2004, 佤帮双雄 Script error: No such module "webarchive"., Phoenix TV.
  7. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Steinmüller, Hans (2018). "Conscription by Capture in the Wa State of Myanmar: acquaintances, anonymity, patronage, and the rejection of mutuality" (PDF). London School of Economics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  8. ^ https://english.shannews.org/archives/20121
  9. ^ https://www.armyrecognition.com/focus-analysis-conflicts/army/analysis-defense-and-security-industry/with-powerful-army-and-chinese-protection-wa-is-de-facto-independent-from-myanmar
  10. ^ https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/wa-become-first-ethnic-force-to-congratulate-min-aung-hlaing-on-presidency.html
  11. ^ https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/cssh/2019/09/03/the-everyday-politics-of-conscription-in-the-wa-state-of-myanmar/
  12. ^ https://www.dmediag.com/opinion/wastate.html
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  15. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Wa Self-Administered Division WFP Myanmar". World Food Programme. Archived from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."缅甸佤邦竟然是一个山寨版的中国 – 军情观察". 26 November 2016. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016.
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