Eastern Min

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Eastern Min
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RegionSoutheast China, Japan, United States, Taiwan
Native speakers
11 million (2022)Template:Ethnologue27 does not exist
Early forms
Varieties
Chinese characters and Foochow Romanized
Official status
Official language in
Matsu Islands, Taiwan[4][5]
Recognised minority
language in
statutory language for public transport in the Matsu Islands[6]
Language codes
ISO 639-3cdo
Glottologmind1253
ELPTemplate:Endangered Languages Project
LinguasphereTemplate:Infobox language/lingualist
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  Eastern Min

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Eastern Min or Min Dong (Template:Zh, Foochow Romanized: Template:Tlit) is a branch of the Min group of the Chinese languages of China. The prestige form and most commonly cited representative form is the Fuzhou dialect, the speech of the capital of Fujian.[7]

Geographic distribution

Fujian and vicinity

Eastern Min varieties are mainly spoken in the eastern region of Fujian, in and near the cities of Fuzhou and Ningde. This includes the traditional Ten Counties of Fuzhou (Chinese: 福州十邑; pinyin: Fúzhōu Shí Yì; Foochow Romanized: Template:Tlit), a region that consists of present-day Pingnan, Gutian, Luoyuan, Minqing, Lianjiang, Changle, Minhou, Yongtai, Fuqing and Pingtan, as well as the urban area of Fuzhou proper.[8][9]

It is also widely encountered as the first language of the Matsu Islands controlled by Taiwan. Historically, the Eastern Min varieties in the Matsu Islands were seen as a part of the Lianjiang variety. The establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 separated the Matsu Islands from the rest of Fujian, and as communications were cut off between the ROC and the PRC, the specific identity of the Matsu Islands was established. Thus, the varieties of Eastern Min on the Matsu Islands became seen as the Matsu dialect.[10]

Additionally, the inhabitants of Taishun and Cangnan to the north of Fujian in Zhejiang also speak Eastern Min varieties.[11] To the south of Fujian, in Zhongshan County, Guangdong, varieties classified as Eastern Min are also spoken in the towns of Dachong, Shaxi and Nanlang.[12][13]

Eastern Min generally coexists with Standard Chinese, in all these areas. On the ROC, the Matsu dialect is officially recognized as a statutory language for transport announcements on the Matsu Islands.[14] In Fuzhou, there is radio available in the local dialect, and the Fuzhou Metro officially uses alongside Standard Mandarin and English in its announcements.[15]

United States

As the coastal area of Fujian has been the historical homeland of a large worldwide diaspora of overseas Chinese, varieties of Eastern Min can also be found across the world, especially in their respective Chinatowns. Cities with high concentrations of such immigrants include New York City,[16] especially Little Fuzhou, Manhattan, Sunset Park, Brooklyn and Flushing, Queens.

Europe

Speakers of Eastern Min varieties are also found in various Chinatown communities in Europe, including London, Paris, and the city of Prato in Italy.[17] In the United Kingdom, a large proportion of the British Chinese community is made up of migrants coming from areas of Fujian that speak Eastern Min,[18][19][20] principally from rural parts of Fuqing and Changle.[21][22][23] In Spain, speakers of Eastern Min from Fuqing and Changle are also common, second to the more dominant Zhejiang community, who speak varieties of Southern Wu such as Wenzhounese.[24][25]

Japan and Malaysia

Chinese communities within Ikebukuro, Tokyo[26] as well as Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia have significant populations of Eastern Min speakers. Fuzhou communities can also be found in Sitiawan, Perak and Yong Peng, Johor in West Malaysia and in Rajang river towns of Kanowit, Sarikei, Kapit and Bintangor in East Malaysia.[citation needed]

Classification

Eastern Min is descended from Proto-Min, which split from the transition from Old Chinese into Middle Chinese during the Han dynasty.[27] It has been classified by Pan Maoding and Jerry Norman as belonging to the Coastal Min branch, and is thus closely related to Northern Min.[28][27]

Norman lists four distinctive features in the development of Eastern Min:[27]

  • The Proto-Min initial *dz- becomes s- in Eastern Min, as opposed to ts- as in Southern Min. For example, 坐 'to sit' is pronounced sô̤i (IPA: Script error: No such module "IPA".) in colloquial Fuzhou dialect, but tsō (IPA: Script error: No such module "IPA".) in the Amoy dialect and Taiwanese Hokkien.
  • Eastern Min varieties have an upper register tone for words which correspond to voiceless nasal initials in Proto-Min, e.g. 妹 'younger sister' in Fuzhou is pronounced with an upper departing tone muói (IPA: Script error: No such module "IPA".) rather than a lower departing tone.
  • Some lexemes descend from Old Chinese which have been conserved in Eastern Min but replaced in other Min varieties. For example, 犬 instead of 狗 for 'dog'.
  • A lack of nasal vowels, in contrast to Southern Min.[27]

Branches

The branches of Eastern Min

Eastern Min is conventionally divided into three branches:[29]

  1. Houguan language group (Script error: No such module "Lang".), also called the Southern subgroup, includes the varieties of Fuzhou, Fuqing, Changle, Lianjiang and that of the Matsu Islands.
  2. Fu-Ning language group (Script error: No such module "Lang".), also called the Northern subgroup, includes the varieties of Ningde and Fu'an.
  3. Manjiang (Script error: No such module "Lang".), spoken in parts of Taishun and Cangnan, Wenzhou, Zhejiang.

Besides these three branches, some dialect islands in the province of Guangdong have been classified as Eastern Min.[30][13] Zhongshan Min is a group of Min varieties spoken in the Zhongshan county of Guangdong, divided into three branches: the Longdu dialect and Nanlang dialect belong to the Eastern Min group, while the Sanxiang dialect belongs to Southern Min.[12][13]

Phonology

The Eastern Min group has a phonology that is particularly divergent from other varieties of Chinese. Aside from the Manjiang dialect, both Houguan and Funing groups are similar in the number of initials, with the Fu'an dialect having 17 initials, two more than the Fuzhou dialect, the additions being Script error: No such module "IPA". and Script error: No such module "IPA". or Script error: No such module "IPA". as separate phonemes (the glottal stop is common to both but excluded from this count). The Manjiang dialect on the other hand has been influenced by the Wu dialects of Zhejiang, and hence has significantly more initials than the varieties of Fujian.

The finals vary significantly between varieties, with the extremes being represented by Manjiang dialects at a low of 39 separate finals, and the Ningde dialect representing the high at 69 finals.

Comparison of numbers of Eastern Min initials and finals
Types Houguan subgroup (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Funing subgroup (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Manjiang (Script error: No such module "Lang".)
City Fuzhou (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Fuqing (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Gutian (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Ningde (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Fuding (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Fu'an (Script error: No such module "Lang".) Qianku, Cangnan, Zhejiang (Script error: No such module "Lang".)
Number of Initials 15 15 15 15 15 17 29
Number of Finals 46 42 51 69 41 56 39
Number of Tones 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

Eastern Min varieties generally have seven tones, by the traditional count (based on the four tones of Middle Chinese, including the entering tone as a separate entity). In the middle of the Qing dynasty, eight tones were attested, but the historical rising tones (Script error: No such module "Lang".) re-merged.[31]

Comparison of tones across Eastern Min varieties
Level Script error: No such module "Lang". Rising
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Departing Script error: No such module "Lang". Entering Script error: No such module "Lang".
Dark Script error: No such module "Lang". Light Script error: No such module "Lang". Dark Script error: No such module "Lang". Light Script error: No such module "Lang". Dark Script error: No such module "Lang". Light Script error: No such module "Lang".
Fuzhou
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Script error: No such module "IPA". 44 Script error: No such module "IPA". 53 Script error: No such module "IPA". 31 Script error: No such module "IPA". 213 Script error: No such module "IPA". 242 Script error: No such module "IPA". 23 Script error: No such module "IPA". 5
Fu'an
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Script error: No such module "IPA". 332 Script error: No such module "IPA". 22 Script error: No such module "IPA". 42 Script error: No such module "IPA". 21 Script error: No such module "IPA". 324 Script error: No such module "IPA". 2 Script error: No such module "IPA". 5
Ningde
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Script error: No such module "IPA". 44 Script error: No such module "IPA". 11 Script error: No such module "IPA". 42 Script error: No such module "IPA". 35 Script error: No such module "IPA". 52 Script error: No such module "IPA". 4 Script error: No such module "IPA". 5
Fuding
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Script error: No such module "IPA". 445 Script error: No such module "IPA". 212 Script error: No such module "IPA". 55 Script error: No such module "IPA". 53 Script error: No such module "IPA". 22 Script error: No such module "IPA". 5 Script error: No such module "IPA". 23
Taishun, Zhejiang
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Script error: No such module "IPA". 213 Script error: No such module "IPA". 33 Script error: No such module "IPA". 455 Script error: No such module "IPA". 53 Script error: No such module "IPA". 42 Script error: No such module "IPA". 5 Script error: No such module "IPA". 43
Qianku, Cangnan, Zhejiang
Script error: No such module "Lang". 		Script error: No such module "IPA". 44 Script error: No such module "IPA". 214 Script error: No such module "IPA". 45 Script error: No such module "IPA". 41 Script error: No such module "IPA". 21 Script error: No such module "IPA". 5 Script error: No such module "IPA". 21
Miaojiaqiao, Cangnan, Zhejiang
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Sandhi phenomena

The Eastern Min varieties have a wide range of sandhi phenomena. As well as tone sandhi, common to many varieties of Chinese, there is also the assimilation of consonants[32] and vowel alternations (such as rime tensing).

Tone sandhi across Eastern Min varieties can be regressive (where the last syllable affects the pronunciation of those before), progressive (where earlier syllables affect the later ones) or mutual (where both or all syllables change). The rules are generally quite complicated.

Initial assimilation of consonants is usually progressive and may create new phonemes that are not phonemically contrastive in initial position but do contrast in medial position. For example, in the Fuzhou dialect, the Script error: No such module "IPA". phoneme can arise from Script error: No such module "IPA". or Script error: No such module "IPA". in an intervocalic environment.[33][34]

Many varieties also exhibit regressive assimilation of consonants, such as in the way a final nasal consonant, usually given the citation value Script error: No such module "IPA"., assimilates to the place of articulation of the following consonant. For example, the negative adverb of the Fuzhou dialect, often written Template:Wikt-lang, is generally transcribed in Bàng-uâ-cê as n̂g Script error: No such module "IPA"., but it can also surface as Script error: No such module "IPA". before labial consonants and as Script error: No such module "IPA". before dental consonants. In this case, since both regressive and progressive assimilation processes occur, it can be described as mutual assimilation, resulting in one nasal consonant.[34]

See also

Notes

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  1. ^ Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.[1][2][3]

References

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  1. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Mei, Tsu-lin (1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 30: 86–110, JSTOR 2718766
  2. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1984), Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, p. 3, ISBN 978-0-774-80192-8
  3. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). "Min". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7398962. Archived from the original on 2023-10-13. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  4. ^ 本土語言納中小學必修 潘文忠：將按語發法實施 Template:In lang
  5. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."國家語言發展法 第二條".
  6. ^ Script error: No such module "Lang".
  7. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Li Rulong (李如龙) (1994). 福州方言词典 (in 中文) (Rev. 1st ed.). Fuzhou: Fujian People's Press. p. 1. ISBN 7211023546.
  8. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."关于福州十邑". Mindu Online (in 中文). Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  9. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Sim, Michelle Jia En (2022). A sketch grammar of Singapore Fuzhou (Master's thesis). Singapore: Nanyang Technological University. doi:10.32657/10356/155961. S2CID 247931980.[better source needed]
  10. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lin, Sheng-Chang (2021-09-13). "At the Edge of State Control: The Creation of the "Matsu Islands"". Taiwan Insight. University of Nottingham Taiwan Studies Programme. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
  11. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Zheng, Wei (25 January 2015). 論前齶音聲母j-的唇齒化音變 (PDF). Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics (in 中文). 8 (2): 195–213. doi:10.1163/2405478X-00802003. ISSN 2405-478X. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  12. ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bodman, Nicholas C. (1984). "The Namlong Dialect, a Northern Min Outlier in Zhongshan Xian and the Influence of Cantonese on its Lexicon and Phonology". Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies. 14 (1): 1–19.
  13. ^ a b c Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bodman, Nicholas C. (1985). Acson, Veneeta; Leed, Richard L. (eds.). The Reflexes of Initial Nasals in Proto-Southern Min-Hingua. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 20. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 2–20. ISBN 978-0-8248-0992-8. JSTOR 20006706.
  14. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法§6-全國法規資料庫". law.moj.gov.tw (in 中文). 全國法規資料庫. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  15. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Zheng Jing (郑靓). "乡音报站"女神"郭铃：唱响福州地铁好声音". Fjsen. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  16. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Guest, Kenneth J. (2003). God in Chinatown: Religion and Survival in New York's Evolving Immigrant Community. New York University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0814731546.
  17. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Pieke, Frank. "Research Briefing 4: Transnational Communities" (PDF). Transnational Communities Programme, Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology, Oxford. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  18. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wang, Danlu (31 March 2014). "Profession or passion?: Teaching Chinese in London Chinese complementary schools". London Review of Education. 12: 34–49. doi:10.18546/LRE.12.1.05. ISSN 1474-8460. S2CID 151552619.
  19. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Luo, Siyu; Gadd, David; Broad, Rose (May 2023). "The criminalisation and exploitation of irregular Chinese migrant workers in the United Kingdom". European Journal of Criminology. 20 (3): 1016–1036. doi:10.1177/14773708221132889. S2CID 255079151.
  20. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Pieke, Frank N. "Recent Trends in Chinese Migration to Europe: Fujianese Migration in Perspective" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2023.
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  22. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wu, Yan; Wang, Xinyue. "Gendered Active Civic Participation: The Experience of Chinese Immigrants in Europe" (PDF). University of Oldenburg. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  23. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Lin, Sheng; Bax, Trent (December 2009). "Irregular Emigration from Fuzhou: A Rural Perspective". Asian and Pacific Migration Journal. 18 (4): 539–551. doi:10.1177/011719680901800405. S2CID 153457798. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
  24. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Liu, Ting (2022). "El traductor automático en los comercios chinos de Cataluña: una herramienta para eliminar la barrera lingüística" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  25. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Ma, Jie. "From China to Spain Chinese Immigrants in Anthropological View" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  26. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Wong, Bernard P.; Chee-Beng, Tan, eds. (2013). Chinatowns around the world gilded ghetto, ethnopolis, and cultural diaspora. Brill. p. 251. ISBN 978-9004255906.
  27. ^ a b c d Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Norman, Jerry (1991). "The Mǐn Dialects in Historical Perspective". Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series (3): 323–358. ISSN 2409-2878. JSTOR 23827042.
  28. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Pan Maoding (潘茂鼎); Li Rulong (李如龍); Liang Yuzhang (梁玉璋); Zhang Shengyu (張盛裕); Chen Zhangtai (陳章太) (1963). 福建漢語方言分區略說. Zhongguo yuwen (6): 475–495.
  29. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Kurpaska, Maria (2010). Chinese language(s): a look through the prism of the great dictionary of modern Chinese dialects. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. p. 71. ISBN 9783110219142.
  30. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Bodman, Nicholas C. (1984). "The Namlong Dialect, a Northern Min Outlier in Zhongshan Xian and the Influence of Cantonese on its Lexicon and Phonology". Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies. 14 (1): 1–19.
  31. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.李, 含茹. "苍南蛮话语音研究--《复旦大学》2009年硕士论文". CDMD.cnki.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2019-03-12.
  32. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Yuan, Bixia; Wang, Yizhi (2013). "On the Initial Assimilations of Eastern Min Dialects in Fujian Province--《Dialect》2013年01期". Dialect. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
  33. ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Yang, Ching-Yu Helen (2015). "A synchronic view of the consonant mutations in Fuzhou dialect" (PDF). University System of Taiwan Working Papers in Linguistics. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-06-08. Retrieved 2019-09-09.
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Further reading

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閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for [[Wikivoyage:Mindong phrasebook#Template:Wikidata|Mindong]].

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