Mongolian script
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| Mongolian script Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ | |
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| Script type | |
| Creator | Tata-tonga |
Period | Template:Ubli |
| Direction | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:GetParameters' not found. |
| Languages | Mongolian language |
| Related scripts | |
Parent systems | |
Child systems |
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| ISO 15924 | |
| ISO 15924 | Page Template:Mono/styles.css has no content.Mong Page Template:Mono/styles.css has no content.(145), Mongolian |
| Unicode | |
Unicode alias | Mongolian |
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Template:Contains special characters
The traditional Mongolian script,Template:NoteTag also known as the Hudum Mongol bichig,Template:NoteTag was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. The script is a co-official script in Mongolia since 2025, alongside the Cyrillic script for the language. It is also the official written form being taught in schools for Mongolian ethnic students in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China[1]. It is traditionally written in vertical lines from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right File:Text direction TDright.svg. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, it is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.
Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.
History
The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.[3]Template:Rp Tata-tonga, a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan, was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script.[4]
From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc.[5]Template:Rp The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants ɣ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).[5]Template:Rp
Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with /dʒ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial /j/. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for /s/. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.[3]Template:Rp
Words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.[6][2]Template:Rp
The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.[7]Template:Rp Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.[8]Template:Rp
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Reed pens
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Ink brushes
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Writing implements of the Bogd Khan
Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.[9]
The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.[10][11][12] Due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40%[13]) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities.[14][15]
Names
The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script.Template:NoteTag From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script,Template:NoteTag in contrast to the New Script,Template:NoteTag referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script,Template:NoteTag in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script,Template:NoteTag and also as 'vertical script'.Template:NoteTag[16]Template:Rp[2]Template:Rp[17]Template:Rp[18]Template:Rp[19][20]Template:Rp[21]Template:Rp[22]
Overview
The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., final Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".) and consonants (syllable-initial Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., sometimes Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.[6] The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.
Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.
The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.
Vowel harmony
Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:
- The back, male, masculine,[23] hard, or yang[24] vowels Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang"..
- The front, female, feminine,[23] soft, or yin[24] vowels Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang"..
- The neutral vowel Script error: No such module "lang"., able to appear in all words.
Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel Script error: No such module "lang"., but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.[5]Template:Rp[25]Template:Rp[26]Template:Rp[27]
Separated final vowels
A separated final form of vowels Script error: No such module "lang". or Script error: No such module "lang". (Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Mvsᠠ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang".) is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and a word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen.Template:NoteTag[5]Template:Rp[28]Template:Rp[2]Template:Rp[26]Template:Rp[29]Template:Rp
The presence or lack of a separated Script error: No such module "lang". or Script error: No such module "lang". can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠬᠠᠷTemplate:Mvsᠠ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang". 'black' with Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠬᠠᠷᠠ Script error: No such module "lang". 'to look').[30]Template:Rp[29]Template:Rp
It has the same shape as the traditional dative-locative suffix Script error: No such module "lang". exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post-Classical use.[25]Template:Rp[31][2]Template:Rp
Separated suffixes
- Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠪᠤᠷᠢᠶᠠᠳ Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯTemplate:Nnbspᠤᠨ Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠦᠨᠡᠨ᠃
- Script error: No such module "lang".
- 'Buryat-Mongol truth'
All case suffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap.Template:NoteTag A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.[5]Template:Rp[25]Template:Rp[31][32][26]Template:Rp[29]Template:Rp
Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., or Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".,[5]Template:Rp as in Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷTemplate:Nnbspᠠ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang". 'to the country' and Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠡᠳᠦᠷTemplate:Nnbspᠡ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang". 'on the day',[5]Template:Rp or Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠤᠯᠤᠰTemplate:Nnbspᠢ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang". 'the state' etc.[5]Template:Rp Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped Script error: No such module "lang". in the two-letter suffix Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Nnbspᠤᠨ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.[5]Template:Rp[29]Template:Rp
Consonant clusters
Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.Template:NoteTag
Compound names
In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ Script error: No such module "lang". 'Jasper-jewel' or Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ Script error: No such module "lang". – the city of Hohhot; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ⟨Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠥTemplate:Zwj→Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠊ᠥTemplate:FvsTemplate:Zwj⟩ Script error: No such module "lang". in Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠮᠤᠤTemplate:ZwjTemplate:ZwjᠥTemplate:FvsTemplate:ZwjTemplate:Zwjᠬᠢᠨ Script error: No such module "lang". 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang"., in contrast, are not affected in this way.[5]Template:Rp[33]Template:Rp[2]Template:Rp[18]Template:Rp
Isolate citation forms
Isolate citation forms for syllables containing Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang". may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in ⟨Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠪᠣ⟩ Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". or ⟨Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠮᠣTemplate:Fvs⟩ Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., and with a vertical tail as in ⟨Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠪᠥTemplate:Fvs⟩ Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". or ⟨Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠮᠥTemplate:Fvs⟩ Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).[27][2]Template:Rp
Flaws
In the traditional Mongolian script, certain letters—such as t and d, o and u—were frequently confused, and letter formation varied inconsistently at the beginning, middle, and end of words. The poor legibility between letters and the requirement to memorize each syllable's shape individually increased the learning burden of the script. Additionally, its structural characteristics led to wider line spacing, consuming more space and paper.[34] For example, in Qing Dynasty texts like the Pentaglot Dictionary, the Manchu and Mongolian sections occupy a larger portion of the page. Moreover, vertical text alignment is ill-suited to modern technologies, which are generally designed with exclusively horizontal writing systems in mind.[citation needed]
Letters
Sort orders
Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model.[33]Template:Rp
| South (inner) Mongolian order[35]Template:Rp | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1986 primer, Mongolian Republic[20]Template:Rp | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | |||||||||||||
| Dictionaries after 1924, Mongolian Republic[35]Template:Rp | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". | Script error: No such module "lang". |
Native Mongolian
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".
Galik characters
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet (Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "Lang".), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).[39]
In 1917, the politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions,[a] a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions,[b] to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent the Mandarin retroflex consonants. These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese.[40]
Also Galik alphabet used to create foreign words in Mongolian Script and also Galik Characters were part of Foreign Letters in Mongolian Script.
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- ^ simplified Chinese: 《蒙汉合璧五方元音》; traditional Chinese: 《蒙漢合璧五方元音》
- ^ Chinese: 《五方元音》
Punctuation and numerals
Punctuation
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".
When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends.[33]Template:Rp Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect.[33]Template:Rp Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉.[29]Template:Rp
Numerals
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
| Text | Image | |
|---|---|---|
| Script error: No such module "lang". 'year of 15' on a 1925 tögrög coin, with the number written across the baseline.[44] | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠑᠕ Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠣᠨ |
|
| 89 (top) written vertically on a hillside, with the number written along the baseline. | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠘ Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠙ |
|
| Printed numeral 3, written along the baseline and rotated 90 degrees clockwise. | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠁Template:Zwjᠤᠢ ᠓ ᠬᠡTemplate:Zwj᠁ |
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠐ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠑ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠒ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠓ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠔ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠕ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠖ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠗ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠘ | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠙ |
Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom.[5]Template:Rp[36]Template:Rp For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on the line.[25]Template:Rp
Components and writing styles
Components
Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes)Template:NoteTag commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.
| Form | Name(s) | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠊ᠡTemplate:Zwj | 'Tooth'Template:NoteTag | A main part of letters Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". (from Old Uyghur aleph), Script error: No such module "lang". (nun, also part of the digraph Script error: No such module "lang".), Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". (gimel-heth), Script error: No such module "lang". (mem), Script error: No such module "lang". (hooked resh), initial Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". (taw), etc. Historically also part of Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". (kaph), as well as Script error: No such module "lang". (resh). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠡTemplate:Zwj | 'Crown'Template:NoteTag | An exaggerated initial (swash) tooth. Used for the leading aleph of initial vowels (Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang".), and with some initial consonants (Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang". = nun, mem, hooked resh, ha etc.). Historically unused. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠊᠊ | 'Spine, backbone'Template:NoteTag | The vertical line running through words. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠠ | 'Tail'Template:NoteTag | The swash final of Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., etc. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠰTemplate:Fvs | 'Short tail'Template:NoteTag | The swash final of Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang". (samekh-shin or zayin). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Mvsᠠ⟨?⟩ ⟨File:Mongolian letter E (final form-2).svg⟩ | CrookTemplate:NoteTag | The separated final Script error: No such module "lang".. |
| Crook, 'Sprinkling, dusting'Template:NoteTag | The connected lower part of final Script error: No such module "lang".; the lower part of final Script error: No such module "lang". (kaph). | |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᡳTemplate:Fvs | 'Hook'Template:NoteTag | The final part of final Script error: No such module "lang". (after bow-shaped Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang".) and some galik letters. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠵTemplate:Zwj | 'Shin, stick'Template:NoteTag | A main part of Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang"., and final part of initial Script error: No such module "lang". (yodh). Also the upper part of final Script error: No such module "lang". (kaph). |
| 'Straight shin'Template:NoteTag | ||
| 'Long tooth'Template:NoteTag | ||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠶTemplate:Zwj | 'Shin with upturn'Template:NoteTag | Initial and medial Script error: No such module "lang". (yodh). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠸTemplate:Zwj | Shin with downturnTemplate:NoteTag | The letters Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang". (bet). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠷTemplate:Zwj | Horned shinTemplate:NoteTag | The letter Script error: No such module "lang". (resh). Historically also the upper part of final Script error: No such module "lang". and separated Script error: No such module "lang".. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠳTemplate:FvsTemplate:Zwj | 'Looped shin'Template:NoteTag | A medial Script error: No such module "lang". (lamedh). Historically with its enclosed (counter) endpoint varying in shape: as open/closed, hook-shaped, pointy/round etc. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᡁTemplate:Zwj | 'Hollow shin'Template:NoteTag | The letters Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang". (from the Tibetan script). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwjᠢ | 'Bow'Template:NoteTag | Final Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang".; Script error: No such module "lang".Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". (pe), Script error: No such module "lang"., etc. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠣTemplate:Zwj | 'Belly, stomach,' loop, contourTemplate:NoteTag | The counter of Script error: No such module "lang". (waw), Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., initial Script error: No such module "lang"., etc. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠲTemplate:Zwj | 'Hind-gut'Template:NoteTag | An initial Script error: No such module "lang". (taw). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠬ | [...]Template:NoteTag | An initial Script error: No such module "lang". (gimel-heth). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠮTemplate:Zwj | 'Braid, pigtail'Template:NoteTag and 'Horn'Template:NoteTag | The letters Script error: No such module "lang". (mem) and Script error: No such module "lang". (hooked resh). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠯTemplate:Zwj | ||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠰTemplate:Zwj | 'Corner of the mouth'Template:NoteTag | The letters Script error: No such module "lang". (samekh-shin). |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠴTemplate:Zwj | [...]Template:NoteTag | The letter Script error: No such module "lang". (angular tsade). |
| 'Fork'Template:NoteTag | ||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠵTemplate:Zwj | [...]Template:NoteTag | The letter Script error: No such module "lang". (smooth tsade). |
| 'Tusk, fang'Template:NoteTag | ||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwj᠊ᠹTemplate:Zwj | Flaglet, tuftTemplate:NoteTag | The left-side diacritic of Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., etc. These names are only used for such components created for words of foreign origin. |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠽTemplate:Zwj |
Writing styles
As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):[42][5]Template:Rp[25]Template:Rp[3]Template:Rp[36]Template:Rp[47]Template:Rp[28]Template:Rp[2]Template:Rp[53]Template:Rp[20]Template:Rp
Rounded letterforms
- Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten Script error: No such module "lang". 'ten').
| Block‑printed | 1604 Pen-written formTemplate:NoteTag | Modern brush‑Template:WbrwrittenTemplate:Wbr form | Template:Shy & Template:Shy | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1312 Uyghur Mong. formTemplate:NoteTag | semi-modern formsTemplate:NoteTag | |||
| File:Block-printed arban 2.svg | File:Block-printed arban.svg | File:Pen-written arban.svg | File:Brush-written arban 2.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'ten' |
| File:Block-printed arban v.svg | ||||
Tail
- Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang".) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
- The long final tails of Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang". in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.
Page Template:Multiple image/styles.css has no content.
Yodh
- A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial Script error: No such module "lang". from Script error: No such module "lang".. The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh (Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang".), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.
Diacritics
- The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., and Script error: No such module "lang"., can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang". could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted Script error: No such module "lang". is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang". can be offset downward from their respective letters (as in Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠭᠣᠣᠯ File:Brush-written γool 2.svg Script error: No such module "lang". and Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠭᠦᠨTemplate:Nnbspᠢ⟨?⟩ File:Brush-written gün-i 2.svg Script error: No such module "lang".).
Bow
- When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see Script error: No such module "lang".). A final Script error: No such module "lang". has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:[2]Template:Rp
| Block‑printed | Pen-written forms | Modern brush‑Template:WbrwrittenTemplate:Wbr forms | Template:Shy & Template:Shy | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uyghur Mong. forms | semi-modern forms | |||
| File:Block-printed u-ue suffix 2.svg | File:Block-printed u-ue suffix.svg | File:Pen-written -u -ü.svg | File:Brush-written u-ue suffix 2.svg | Script error: No such module "lang"./Template:WbrScript error: No such module "lang". |
| File:Block-printed bi 2.svg | File:Block-printed bi.svg | File:Pen-written bi.svg | File:Brush-written bi 2.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'I' |
| File:Block-printed bi 2 alt.svg | ||||
| File:Block-printed ab 2.svg | File:Block-printed ab.svg | File:Pen-written ab.svg | File:Brush-written ab 2.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". (intensifying particle) |
Gimel-heth and kaph
- As in Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang"., Script error: No such module "lang". and separated Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph (Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".) or aleph (Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, Script error: No such module "lang". was used in place of Script error: No such module "lang"., and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix File:Block-printed -taqi -daqi 2.svg Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"..[28]Template:Rp
Ligatures
- In pre-modern Mongolian, medial Script error: No such module "lang". (Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠮᠯTemplate:Zwj) forms a ligature: File:Mongolian script ml ligature.svg.
Short tail
- A pre-modern variant form for final Script error: No such module "lang". appears in the shape of a short final Script error: No such module "lang". ⟨Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠰTemplate:Fvs⟩, derived from Old Uyghur zayin (Script error: No such module "Lang".). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰTemplate:Fvs Script error: No such module "lang".. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang"..
| Block‑printed | Pen-written forms | Template:Shy & Template:Shy | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Uyghur Mong. forms | semi-modern forms | ||
| File:Block-printed ez-e 2.svg | File:Block-printed ese.svg | File:Pen-written ese.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'not, no', (negation) |
| File:Block-printed es-e.svg | |||
| File:Block-printed uluz 2.svg | File:Block-printed uluz.svg | File:Pen-written ulus.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'nation' |
| File:Block-printed uluz alt.svg | |||
| File:Block-printed nom 2.svg | File:Block-printed nom.svg | File:Pen-written nom.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'book' |
| File:Block-printed čaγ 2.svg | File:Block-printed čaγ.svg | File:Pen-written čaγ.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'time' |
| File:Block-printed čaγ 2 alt.svg | File:Block-printed čaγ alt.svg | ||
Taw and lamedh
- Initial taw (Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".) can, akin to final mem (Script error: No such module "lang".), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in Script error: No such module "lang". 'book' and Script error: No such module "lang". 'mirror'). The lamedh (Script error: No such module "lang". or Script error: No such module "lang".) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". or Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang".). As in Script error: No such module "lang"., a Uyghur style word-medial Script error: No such module "lang". can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for Script error: No such module "lang".. Taw was applied to both initial Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang". from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme Script error: No such module "lang". in this position.
Tsade
- Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade (Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠵTemplate:Zwj and Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠴ) has come to represent Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang". respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no Script error: No such module "lang". had existed in Old Uyghur:
| Block‑printed | Template:Shy & Template:Shy | |
|---|---|---|
| Uyghur Mong. form | semi-modern form | |
| File:Block-printed čečeg 2.svg | File:Block-printed čečeg.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'flower' |
| Block-printed semi-modern form | Pen-written form | Template:Shy & Template:Shy |
|---|---|---|
| File:Block-printed γaǰar-qačar.svg | File:Pen-written qačar γaǰar.svg | Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". 'cheek/place' |
Resh
- As in Script error: No such module "lang". and Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang"., a resh (of Script error: No such module "lang"., and sometimes of Script error: No such module "lang".) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.
| Block‑printed | Pen-written form | Modern brush‑Template:WbrwrittenTemplate:Wbr form | Template:Shy & Template:Shy | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uyghur Mong. form | semi-modern forms | |||
| File:Block-printed sara 2.svg | File:Block-printed sara.svg | File:Pen-written sara.svg | File:Brush-written sara 2.svg | Script error: No such module "lang". 'moon/month' |
| File:Block-printed sar-a.svg | ||||
Example
| Manuscript | Type | Unicode | Transliteration (first word) |
|---|---|---|---|
| File:Mclassical mimic.jpg | File:Wikiclassicalmongol.svg | Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠸᠢᠺᠢᠫᠧᠳᠢᠶᠠ᠂ ᠴᠢᠯᠦᠭᠡᠲᠦ ᠨᠡᠪᠲᠡᠷᠬᠡᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠢ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ᠪᠣᠯᠠᠢ᠃ |
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠸᠢTemplate:Zwj Script error: No such module "lang"./Template:WbrScript error: No such module "lang". |
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠺᠢTemplate:Zwj Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". | |||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠫᠧTemplate:Zwj Script error: No such module "lang"./Script error: No such module "lang". | |||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠳᠢTemplate:Zwj Script error: No such module "lang". | |||
| Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:ZwjᠶTemplate:Mvsᠠ⟨?⟩ Script error: No such module "lang". or Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.Template:Zwjᠶᠠ Script error: No such module "lang". | |||
| |||
Gallery
-
Mongolian calligraphy of the 13th century work Оюун Түлхүүр (Key of Intelligence)
-
Imperial seal of the Bogd Khan, ca 1911.
-
Mixed Manchu–Mongolian text on a Paiza.
-
Brush-written Script error: No such module "lang". manuscript, 19th century
-
Book of Jeremiah, printed 1840 at Khodon in Siberia.
Unicode
The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.[55]
- The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable. For example, a 2016 corpus study found that the homographic misspelling "mun̅g̅g1ul" was more common than "Mon̅g̅gol" 'mongolia' since o and u are visually identical but encoded separately.[56]
- The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.[57] Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.[58]
- The characters themselves are typed left to right, flowing in lines from top to bottom, instead of the correct direction of up to down, flowing in lines from left to right; as a result, the characters are sometimes rotated 90° counterclockwise when displayed in horizontal lines.
Blocks
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.
The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2016 with the release of version 9.0:
Template:Unicode chart Mongolian Supplement
Keyboard layout
The Windows Mongolian traditional script keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:[60]
Unshifted layout
| FVS3 | 1
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠑ |
2
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠒ |
3
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠓ |
4
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠔ |
5
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠕ |
6
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠖ |
7
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠗ |
8
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠘ |
9
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠙ |
0
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠐ |
NNBSP | = | Backspace | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tab | Q
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠴ Script error: No such module "lang". |
W
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠣ Script error: No such module "lang". |
E
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠡ Script error: No such module "lang". |
R
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠷ Script error: No such module "lang". |
T
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠲ Script error: No such module "lang". |
Y
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠶ Script error: No such module "lang". |
U
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠦ Script error: No such module "lang". |
I
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠢ Script error: No such module "lang". |
O
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠥ Script error: No such module "lang". |
P
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠫ Script error: No such module "lang". |
(...)
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.〔 |
(...)
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.〕 |
(...)
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠁ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Caps | A
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠠ Script error: No such module "lang". |
S
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠰ Script error: No such module "lang". |
D
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠳ Script error: No such module "lang". |
F
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠹ Script error: No such module "lang". |
G
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠭ Script error: No such module "lang". |
H
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠬ Script error: No such module "lang". |
J
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠵ Script error: No such module "lang". |
K
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠺ Script error: No such module "lang". |
L
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠯ Script error: No such module "lang". |
;
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.︔ |
FVS1 | Enter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Shift | \ | Z
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠽ Script error: No such module "lang". |
X
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠱ Script error: No such module "lang". |
C
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠼ Script error: No such module "lang". |
V
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠤ Script error: No such module "lang". |
B
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠪ Script error: No such module "lang". |
N
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠨ Script error: No such module "lang". |
M
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠮ Script error: No such module "lang". |
,
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠂ |
.
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠃ |
. | Shift | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ctrl | Alt | Alt | Ctrl | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Shifted layout
| ~ | 1
! |
2
⁈ |
3
⁉ |
4
— |
5
% |
6 | 7
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠊ |
8 | 9
( |
0
) |
MVS | + | Backspace | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tab | W
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠸ Script error: No such module "lang". |
E
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠧ Script error: No such module "lang". |
R
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠿ Script error: No such module "lang". |
(...)
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.〈 |
(...)
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.〉 |
(...)
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.| | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Caps | H
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠾ Script error: No such module "lang". |
K
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠻ Script error: No such module "lang". |
L
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᡀ Script error: No such module "lang". |
:
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.᠄ |
FVS2 | Enter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Shift | Z
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᡁ Script error: No such module "lang". |
C
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᡂ Script error: No such module "lang". |
N
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.ᠩ Script error: No such module "lang". |
,
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.《 |
.
Page Template:MongolUnicode/fonts.css has no content.》 |
? | Shift | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ctrl | Alt | Alt | Ctrl | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
See also
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Notes
References
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- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."内蒙古自治区民族事务委员会关于做好新时代蒙古语言文字规范化标准化工作的通知". www.xlglrd.gov.cn (in 中文（简体）). Retrieved 2026-03-09.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7.
- ^ a b c d e f Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Christian, David (1998). A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Wiley. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-631-20814-3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2.
- ^ a b György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994.
- ^ a b Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Shepherd, Margaret (2013-07-03). Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond. Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed. ISBN 978-0-8230-8230-8.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Berkwitz, Stephen C.; Schober, Juliane; Brown, Claudia (2009-01-13). Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-00242-9.
- ^ Chinggeltei. (1963) A Grammar of the Mongol Language. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15.
- ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Mongolia to promote usage of traditional script". China.org.cn (March 19, 2020).
- ^ Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025, Montsame, 18 March 2020.
- ^ Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st, Gogo, 1 July 2015. "Misinterpretation 1: Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used. There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament."
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- ^ a b by Manchu convention
- ^ a b in Inner Mongolia.
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{{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^ Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content."Exploring Mongolian Manuscript Collections in Russia and Beyond" (PDF). www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de. Retrieved 2019-07-17.
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External links
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Keyboards Mongolian script layout online
Summaries
- University of Vienna: Grammar of Written Mongolian by Nicholas POPPE Index
- CJVlang: Making Sense of the Traditional Mongolian Script
- StudyMongolian: Written forms with audio pronunciation
- The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts
- Lingua Mongolia: Uighur-script Mongolian Resources Script error: No such module "webarchive".
- Omniglot: Mongolian Alphabet (contains several table inaccuracies regarding glyphs and transliterations)
Studies
- (fr) Rémusat, Abel Récherches sur les langues tartares, Paris, 1820
Grammars
- (ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka), Saint-Petersburg, 1832
- (ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka), Kazan, 1849
- (de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Grammatik der mongolischen Sprache, St. Petersburg, 1831
- (fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss), Paris, 1903
- (it) Puini, Carlo, Elementi della grammatica mongolica, Firenze, 1878
Dictionaries
- (fr, ru) Kovalevskiĭ, Osip Mikhaĭlovich, Dictionnaire Mongol-Russe-Français, Volumes 1–3, Kazan 1844-46-49
- Bolor Dictionary (sometimes uses galik characters for rendering purposes)
- Mongol toli dictionary: state dictionary of Mongolia
Transliteration
- University of Virginia: Transliteration Schemes For Mongolian Vertical Script
- Online tool for Mongolian script transliteration
- Automatic converter for Traditional Mongolian and Cyrillic Mongolian by the Computer College of Inner Mongolia University Script error: No such module "webarchive".
Manuscripts
- Mongolian Manuscripts from Olon Süme – Yokohama Museum of EurAsian Cultures
- Digitised Mongolian manuscripts – The Royal Library, National Library of Denmark
- Mongolian texts – Digitales Turfan-Archiv, the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities
- Preservation of unique and historic newspapers printed in traditional Mongolian script between 1936–1945 – Endangered Archives Programme, British Library
Other
- Official Mongolian script version of the People's Daily Online
- Office of the President of Mongolia website in Mongolian script
- Page Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css has no content.Tang, Didi (20 March 2020). "Mongolia abandons Soviet past by restoring alphabet". The Times. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
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